The Urartians

  

     According to historical sources and archaeological findings, the Urartians, who formed a part of the history of ancient Anatolia, appeared on the stage of history between the VIII century BC and the VI century BC. It was defined as "Uruatri" in Assyrian sources. It meant high country, mountainous country.

    Following this, Uratri, and then Urartu. In the same century, the Nairi principality emerged. They are mentioned in contemporary Assyrian sources. From the IXth century BC onwards, they adopt the Assyrian cuneiform tradition and inscriptions and tablets in their own language are on the agenda. In their own written sources, they identify themselves with the name "Bidini" (li). On the other hand, the names Urartu and Nairi given to them by Assyria are also seen in their own inscriptions.

    The Urartu Civilisation was forgotten in a short time and remained in the memory as a nation mentioned only in a few places until research on this subject began. The name Urartu is known from the Torah. (r.r.r_ Ararat) In connection with the Noahic legend, it is mentioned that Noah's ark was seated on Mount Ararat. In another passage there is a little bit of information. In the famous work of Herodotus, they are referred to as "Alarots". Later Late Antique Sources and Medieval historians accepted that all Urartian works of art were made by the Assyrians. For example, Moses of Khoroneli (of Armenian descent), one of the historians of the V century A.D., writes that the city of Van, which rises on the shores of Lake Van, was built by the Assyrian Queen Samiram (Samiramis) and explains the name of the city as the city of Samiramis. According to this author, Samiramis brought 12,000 labourers and 6,000 builders from Assyria and the countries that paid tribute (tribute, tax) to the Assyrians and built this magnificent city in a short time. According to Moses, the great water canal irrigating the plain of Van was also built by the Assyrian Queen Samiramis. (Samiram is Armenian) Moses' work attracted the attention of orientalists in the modern world in the XIXth century.

THE BEGINNING OF URARTU RESEARCH

    In 1828, the French Society for the Study of Asia sent the archaeologist Friedrich Eduard Schulz to Turkey. He also travelled in Iran. Schulz visited the Van Castle described in detail by Moses, visited the tombs carved into the rocks, identified them as caves, drew their plans and copied the cuneiform inscriptions. In addition, while exploring the Van Plain, he came across a large water canal mentioned by Moses and claimed to have been built by Samiramis, and copied the inscriptions of this canal, called "Samiram Water" by the local people. Schulz's report caused great repercussions in Europe. It took more than a century to analyse these inscriptions, and only then was the historical truth revealed. Namely, Van Castle, the capital of Urartu, was built by Sardur I. The canal in question was built by Mehud, the grandson of Sardur I. King Mehud defeated Assyrian Queen Sammuramat and had this canal built to meet the water needs of Tuspa and irrigate the Van Plain. The murder of Schulz by bandits while conducting research in the mountainous region prevented the continuation of these scientific studies for a while. The material he sent to Paris in 1828 could only be published in 1840. In the same years, archaeological studies started in Mesopotamia in the Old Assyrian Country. Especially the discovery of the palace of Sargon II in Khorsabat in Assyria and the deciphering of the Assyrian cuneiform script shortly afterwards attracted the attention of the scientific world. Only after this, Urartian cuneiform documents also began to be deciphered. Following these first researches, artefacts from Van and its surroundings began to be brought to museums and private collections through illicit excavations. With the proliferation of these artefacts and the decipherment of the inscriptions, the idea that they belonged to the Urartian kings of Van gained strength. Nevertheless, for a long time, numerous Urartian artefacts were accepted as Assyrian artefacts and presented under this name. Towards the end of the 19th century, illicit excavations in and around Van increased and Toprakkale (Rusahilini) was looted. These illicit excavations fed the British Museum in Europe and the Louvre and Berlin museums in Paris. The proliferation of artefacts necessitated scientific excavations in this region. In 1845, the famous archaeologist and diplomat Henri Layard visited Van and in 1880 he sent his assistant Hormudz Rassam to Van. Both scholars conducted excavations of Assyrian palaces in Mesopotamia and introduced them to the scientific world. In 1879-1880, the British Museum sent a scientific delegation to Van. This delegation was headed by Captain Clayton (Vice Consul), the British Consul in Van. Rassam and an American missionary named Dr Reynolds also participated in the excavations mentioned above. However, the architectural remains and small finds left behind from the excavations carried out by antiquities smugglers did not satisfy this scientific committee investigating Toprakkale. This material was published only 80 years later by the famous British scientist Dr R. D. Barnett.  In 1898 and 1899, a scientific team headed by C.F. Lehmann - Haupt and W. Belck excavated Toprakkale again. In 1911-1912, this time Russian scientists were on the scene. An excavation team under the direction of I. A. Orbeli resumed excavations at Toprakkale. Following these years, Van was under Russian occupation between 1915 and 1918. During this war, the Tsarist Russian Archaeological Society appointed Prof. N.J. Marr to Van in 1916. The delegation led by Prof. Marr and Orbeli uncovered the sanctuary and cuneiform inscriptions of the Urartian King Sarduri II on the northern slopes of Van Castle. After the Russian delegation, in 1938, husband and wife Americans conducted research (Kirsopp and Silva Lake). However, the outbreak of World War II affected these studies. These are the first studies in Turkey.

    In Soviet Armenia, excavations in South Transcaucasia in the north-eastern regions of the Urartu Kingdom go back to ancient times. Urartian artefacts were first unearthed in 1862, and especially the inscriptions attracted attention. In 1893, M. Nikolskij travelled around Transcaucasia as a traveller and examined the Urartian fortresses near the places where the inscriptions were found. The real archaeological excavations started at the site called Taşburun and the Urartian city was investigated. According to the inscriptions, the fortress bears the name "Menuahinili". Following these excavations, in 1930, these ruins and inscriptions attracted the attention of the scientific world again and in 1939, systematic excavations were started at the mound named Karmir-Blur near the city of Yerevan. These excavations were carried out by Prof. B.B. Protrovski until recently. This great city was founded by Rusa I, the son of Argisti, and was named Teishebaini (Karmir-Blur). Especially the stadel part of this city provided detailed information about Urartian culture and architecture. (Urartian cities were named after their gods or kings. Terşe- God, Tushpa- Goddess).  Another excavated centre is located on the hill named Arinberd near Yerevan. Its name is Irpuni (Erebuni) and it is divine. Excavations started here in 1950 and continued by K. Ogehesian. Many construction inscriptions belonging to Menua's son Argishti I and Argishti's son Sarduri I were found here (city, foundation, warehouse inscriptions etc.). Nairi are communities of Huri origin and Uruatri are communities of Urartu origin. Their languages are Asiatic and similar.In 1964; excavations were resumed at Armavir-Blur and Davida mounds near Armavir.

NEW RESEARCH IN TURKEY

    The beginning of research in Turkey is as follows. In 1938, the Ankara Archaeological Museum acquired a collection of finds unearthed during the construction of a railway at Altin-tepe, near Erzincan. Among them, a three-legged bronze cauldron, shield and pieces of furniture attracted attention. However, twice in 1956-1957, the British scientist and archaeologist C.A. Burney revisited the castles in the Van region and published their plans. These were published in Anatolien Studies.

    The first scientific excavations started in 1956-1963 and continued intermittently. Altintepe excavations were directed by Prof. Dr Tahsin Özgüç. The tombs, temples and small finds unearthed in this excavation are remarkable. The excavations at Toparkkale were carried out in 1950-60-61 by a committee headed by Prof. Dr. Afif Erzen. The foundations of the temple, which had previously been unearthed during the excavations of the British Museum, were analysed in detail. A bronze shield decorated with lion and bull figures attracts attention. (A ceremonial shield is a religious shield hung on the temple wall).

    In the same years (1960-61), the Çavuştepe excavation in the Gürpınar Plain was also carried out by A. Erzen.  Çavuştepe excavation continued until recent times. This city bears the name of Sarduruhinili.  With its architecture, small finds and inscriptions, it yielded the most detailed and abundant material of the Urartian excavations in Turkey (Urartian fortresses were built on the tops of very high mountains).

    Since 1964, excavations have been carried out under the direction of Prof. Emin Bilgiç and Prof. Baki Öğün at the Kef Castle near Adilcevaz on the northern shore of Lake Van. Particularly noteworthy are the basalt pillars with bas-reliefs uncovered in the palace section. Prof. Kemal Balkan also conducted research in the Patnos region near Lake Van. He discovered a temple belonging to King Menua and his son Argisti I at Aznavurtepe. A palace was also unearthed at Giriktepe. In 1965, British scientists Seton Lloyd and C.A. Burney conducted excavations at Kayalıdere near Varto, north of Lake Van. Especially the temple and tombs are remarkable. In 1967, Prof. Dr. Afif Erzen established the Van Region History and Archaeology Research Centre under the I.Ü.E.F..  The scientific board of this research centre began to investigate the Van Region in detail. Between 1971 and 1975, Van Castle and Toprakkale were researched again by Prof. Erzen, and rescue excavations were carried out on the hill where the treasure of Giyimli Village was looted and smuggled. Hundreds of bronze plates found here were smuggled to various museums and collections of the world. This assemblage of finds provides rich information especially shedding light on the last phase of Urartian art. In addition, rescue excavations carried out in the mounds in the Upper and Lower Euphrates basin under the name of dam excavations in Eastern Anatolia have provided new material and information on Urartian history, especially on the western border.

    The excavations in the Van Region are currently being carried out again by I.Ü.E.F. In 1983, in connection with the historical national park project of the Fortress of Van and the Old Fortress of Van, headed by Taner Tahran, excavations were started at the Fortress of Van in 1987. These excavations revealed a large palace (Yenisaray) belonging to Argisti I. Excavations were also started on the mound (Van Kalesi Höyük) just north of the castle (dating from the EBA to the Ottoman period). In addition, the excavations at Dilkaya Höyük, carried out jointly with Ege University in 1984 under the direction of Prof. Atlan Çilingiroğlu, have continued until today, and excavations at the Urartian Castle-Ayanis were also started by A. Çilingiroğlu.

URARTU RESEARCH IN NORTH-WESTERN IRAN

In the last two decades, German and British scientific delegations have carried out excavations and researches in the settlement centres and fortresses in Northwestern Iran, which show the eastern expansion of the Urartian State. C.H. Burney conducted excavations and research at Hafvalan Tepe. W. Kleiss, one of the German scientists, conducted excavations in Bastam. The Urartu city here bears the name "Rusai Urutur" (small city of Russia). Nearly a hundred fortresses and settlement centres were found in Northwestern Iran, especially during the surveys conducted by the German Archaeological Institute. These cities constitute the settlements of the eastern expansion of Urartu in the VII century BC. Meanwhile, there are also small scale excavations and researches in Northern Iraq.

MAIN PERIODS OF URARTU HISTORY

In the light of contemporary historical sources and archaeological finds, the Urartians appeared on the stage of history from the first quarter of the 13th century BC to the beginning of the 6th century BC. In terms of geographical area, they were dominant in Transcaucasia in the Karasu Basin, with Lake Van as the centre, and in the lands extending from the Malatya Region to Lake Urmia. The history of Urartu is divided into two main periods according to the structural character of the political administration.

I. Main Period: It is the period between the first quarter of the 13th century BC and the first half of the 9th century BC. (Confederations period-Urartu's Archaic period).

II. Main Period: It is the period of the Urartu Kingdom between the second half of the 9th century BC and the beginning of the 6th century BC.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE I. MAIN PERIOD

    This period is characterised as the Proto-History of Urartu. Due to its characteristics, this period is defined by us as the Archaic Age of Urartu. The sources of this period are based entirely on the Annals of Assyrian Kings as written documents. In other words, the sources are unidirectional. When these royal annals are analysed, the Uruatri and Nairi Confederations - a union of feudal principalities that dominated the lands around Lake Van in Eastern Anatolia - are seen. The ethnic origins of these societies are based on the migrations of the "Huri-Urartu" tribes and related tribes coming from Transcaucasia in the third millennium BC. At the beginning of the 13th century BC, the main factor that led to the emergence of two major political unions, Uruatri and Nairi, which would form the foundations of the future Urartu State, on the stage of history in the form of a confederation of feudal principalities was a great and powerful danger emerging on the southern borders of Eastern Anatolia. As a result of the destruction and disintegration by the Hittites of the Hurri-Mitanni State, which dominated Northern Mesopotamia once in the vicinity of Kirkuk in the second millennium BC, this political power withdrew from the stage of history. The Assyrian King Salmanasar I (1274-1245 B.C.) dealt the last blow to the remnants of this state, which was struggling to survive. The chain development of historical events starts after this. With the disappearance of this state, this buffer state between Assyria and Eastern Anatolia disappeared. These events disrupted the political balance in Northern Mesopotamia.

    This policy of Assyria, which has been trying to own the Eastern Mediterranean region and its trade throughout its history, and which has adopted the principle of exploiting the riches of Anatolian lands as a principle, begins to gain functionality with this event. The strengthening of Assyria necessitates a strong economy. The rich resources required for this were also available in Eastern Anatolia. For example, raw material resources such as iron and copper, soil products and animal herds as well as people. Heavy taxes and tributes levied on societies were a necessary and continuous source of income and exploitation for the Assyrian economy. When we analyse all the relevant Assyrian sources, it is understood that the real purpose of the military campaigns was for this purpose. In other words, economic reasons lie at the root of the campaigns against eastern Anatolia. There was no continuous and permanent Assyrian sovereignty for occupation. Thus, the independent feudal principalities in eastern Anatolia, which had no political unity until this date, were confronted with this strong danger coming from the south. As a result of this pressure, Uruatri in the first quarter of the 13th century BC and Nairi Confederations shortly afterwards took their places on the stage of history as a conscious counter reaction to Assyrian oppression.

HURRIAN-URARTU CONNECTION

    It is certain that both societies are descended from common ancestors of the same origin. The migration waves of these related societies from Transcaucasia in the early 3rd millennium BC spread to two different geographical areas. a) Eastern Anatolia. b) Northern Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, Palestine, i.e. the Hirbet-Kerak Culture, which is the equivalent of the Karas Culture in Eastern Anatolia. These finding centres in Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine are also parallel to the distribution area of the Hurri language. This culture melted and assimilated into local cultures at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. It is a fact that the Hurrians who settled in the south had an advantage over the related societies settled in the high plateaus and mountainous regions of Eastern Anatolia. This is because the geographical environment, the level of civilisation of local and neighbouring cultures and mutual interaction should be taken into consideration. The Hurri culture in the south developed in the region where the super civilisations of the Asia Minor world were born. In connection with this, there are at least two major stages.

Writing

    The Hurrians of the south, under the influence of well-established and high-level indigenous neighbouring civilisations, had a tradition of writing 1500 years earlier than their relatives in eastern Anatolia, the Urartians, as evidenced by the Hurri written documents from approximately 2300 BC and the following 2nd millennium.

Political Organisation

    The Huris in the south, especially from the middle of the 16th century BC onwards, adopted a centralised state-kingdom administration. The existence of the administrative centre "Wassugani" and king names mentioned in the sources and the effective role of the Hurri-Mitanni State in Asia Minor prove this. On the other hand, in Eastern Anatolia, in the same period, local administration, i.e. tribal and feudal principalities were still in place. In conclusion, we can say the following.

    Both societies continued their historical and cultural development in different geographical regions. For these reasons, differences have occurred in some cultural elements, especially in language. Urartu and Hur languages were close to each other, descended from common ancestors. Some Hurri texts dating back to the third millennium BC found in the southern regions show some features that continued in the Urartu language in the first millennium BC, but disappeared in the Hurri language in the second millennium BC. For this reason, the Urartian language is said to come from the prehistoric age of the Hurrians. Both languages are Asiatic. Urartu language is similar to the Ingush and Chechen languages, which are among the Caucasian languages of today. (Their ceramics are handmade. They started to use the wheel after they crossed to Anatolia).

URUATRI IN THE SOURCES OF SALMANASSAR I. (1274-1245 BC)

In his annals, the king of Assyria mentions a military expedition against the eight Uruatri countries surrounding Lake Van. (Uruatri=High Country, Mountainous Country= Assyrian texts). Following this, we encounter the name Nairi during the reign of his son Tukutti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 B.C. Tukitti-Ninurta Period). The aforementioned Nairi Principalities Union was formed in the lands west of Lake Van. Tukutti-Ninurta gives the following information in summary; 43 kings of the Nairi countries rebelled against Assyria, but they were bloodily defeated, subjugated and taken to Assyria in chains. The Nairi communities were subjected to tribute and taxation.

There is no information about Uruatri and Nairi in Assyrian sources until Tiglat-Pileser I, that is, until 1115 BC. In other words, the sources are silent on this subject. Because during this period, the migrations of the sea tribes in the west, followed by the Aegean migrations took place and the Mediterranean world was revitalised by these events. These migrations directly affected Assyria. However, its close neighbours, especially the western region, were greatly affected by these migrations. In this period of confusion, Assyrian kings undoubtedly did not want to leave their country by making an expedition to Eastern Anatolia. The migration of sea tribes is mentioned in the inscription of Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah. Aegean Migrations took place at the beginning of the XIIth century BC. These are described in detail in the inscription of the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II in Medinet-Habu.  Buckel (Memecikli) pottery from layer VII a of Troy also provides us with information. It is understood that the Uruatri and Nairi Confederations grew stronger and strengthened their sovereignty in this complex period.

URUATRI AND NAAIRI PRINCIPALITIES IN THE ANNALS OF TIGLAT-PILESER

(1115-1077 BC)

     The campaigns of this king were especially directed against Nairi, that is, to the west and southwest of Eastern Anatolia. The account in his annal is as follows.

"Assyria, my God and Master, sent me to the distant countries on the shores of the Upper Sea, which did not have a master. I led their armies through narrow roads and steep gorges that no king before me had travelled through. When we advanced slowly, I rode in my chariot, and when the going became difficult, I advanced with the help of bronze axes. The 23 kings of the Nairi countries gathered their chariots and warriors in their countries. They came before me to fight. I attacked them with all the fury of my weapons, which caused fear and terror, and I destroyed great armies like the rushing floods of Assyria. 60 kings of the Nairi and those who came to their aid I drove by the power of my spear to the edge of the Upper Sea. I took their great cities, carried off their treasures and other booty, and burned their houses to the ground. I captured all the ktal of the Nairi countries alive, but I showed them mercy, spared their lives in the presence of Samas, my god and lord, and released them from the bosom of captivity. Then I made them swear before the great gods that they would serve and obey me in the future. I took their sons, the heirs of their dynasties, as hostages to keep their promise. Then I asked them to give them 1200 horses and 2000 cattle Tribut and gave them permission to return to their country again..."

    It is clear that Tiglat-pileser I only wanted to exert pressure by plundering lands and riches, and to strengthen his authority in the Nairi Country by treating the captured lords well. In the following Assur- bel- kala period, the Uruatri and Nairi countries and the expeditions made against these countries are mentioned. Following this king, Assyrian sources are silent about Uruatri and Nairi for the second time. Because Aramaean migrations started. We have seen above that Assyria was able to stay away from the destructive effects of the sea tribes and the Aegean Migrations due to its geographical location. However, the desert tribes to the south of Assyria benefited from the confusion caused by these migrations, and Aramaean migrations of Semitic origin continued for years as a continuous leakage from the deserts to the cultural regions. Following these migrations, during the reigns of Adad Ninari II (911-891 B.C.) and Tukutti Ninurta II (890-884 B.C.), the Assyrian State once again turned towards Eastern Anatolia and made expeditions against the Uratri and Nairi Confederations and the societies there were again subjected to tribute and taxation. These confederations were freed from the pressure of Assyria due to Aramaean Migrations and became stronger.

THE FOUNDATION PHASE OF URARTU STATE

Since the Assyrian King Assur-Nasirpal II (883-859 BC), the terms Urartu and Nairi started to be used in the same sense in Assyrian sources. Especially in the History of Ancient Asia Minor, with this king, the middle of the century B.C. ). The mid-century is generally accepted as a period of intensified Assyrian military campaigns. In this period, it is noteworthy that Assyria regained its former military power as one of the superpowers providing political balance in the Asia Minor world. Assyria had gained control over the conquered territories through bloodshed, fire and force of arms. Their destruction and looting undermined the vital points of economic and cultural development. However, in response to these pressures, the resistance of the societies in Eastern Anatolia increased day by day and as a result, this time the Urartu and Nairi Confederations were united and the foundations of the Urartu State were laid. We call this period the foundation phase of the Urartu State. In other words, the Urartu-Nairi United State is in question. Detailed information about this is found in the annals of Assyrian King Assur Nashirpal II (833-859 B.C.) The first king of this united kingdom was Lapturi and is referred to as Lutipri (880-860 B.C.) in Urartian sources.

    LAPTURI-LUTIPRI (880-860 BC)

    The name of this king is mentioned in the inscriptions of the Urartian King Sarduri I in the capital city of Tuspa. In the Assyrian cuneiform inscription with the same text on the block stones of the monumental structure known as Sardur Burcu, located on the north-western end of the giant rock on which the castle of Van rises, Sarduri I refers to himself as "the son of King Lutipri the Great". King Lutipri is referred to as Lapturi in the inscriptions of his contemporary Nashirpal II of Assyria. Nashirpal II of Assyria, in his annal of the events of 882 BC, states the following.

"... during my stay in the city of Tushan ...... I received tribute from Lapturi, the son of Tubusi, and from the country of Urume in the same country, and I accepted chariots, horses, mules, silver, gold, bronze vessels, cattle, sheep and wine as tribute from the kings of the Nairi countries in the same country. I obliged the Nairi countries to carry it. ...."

    Tusha is the city of Lapturi. It was captured by the Assyrian King Assur Nasirpal II and made a centre for the northern regions of Assyria and some of the Assyrian people who were impoverished by the Aramaean Migrations were settled in this rebuilt city. (Tuhsa = Üçtepe is a large mound.) A Kurkh stele was found here and taken to the Birtish Museum. Again, according to philologists, Lapturi is a typical Hurrian name.

ARAME - ARAMU (860-840 BC)

    In the written sources of Assyrian King Salmanassar III (858-824 B.C.), another Urartian King, whose name is not mentioned in the Urartian inscriptions, is mentioned. In Salmanassar III's annal describing the events of 858 B.C., he says the following.

"At the beginning of my reign, in the first years of my reign.........I moved from Hubuskia (an important region south of Lake Van). I approached Sugunia, the city of the king of Arame of Urartu. I attacked and captured the city. I slaughtered most of his warriors. I collected the spoils. I made a column of severed heads in front of his city. I moved from Sugunia. I reached the sea of the Nairi country......."

In the events of the year of the reign of Salmanassar III (856 BC), it is stated as follows.

".....I travelled from the country of Daei ehi (around Erzurum) and reached Arzaskun, the royal city of Aramu of Urartu. When Aramu of Urartu was confronted with my powerful and terrifying weapons, he was frightened and left his city and went to Mount Ad. I slaughtered 3400 of his warriors and dyed the mountains and valleys with their blood like dyeing wool...."

In the fiftenth year of his reign, he organised his third expedition against Urartu (844 B.C.).

"....In the 15th year of my reign, I marched against the country of Nairi. I had a royal image of me placed at the source of the Tigris. I passed through the passage of the Tunibuni country and I pursued the cities of Aramu of Urartu to the banks of the Euphrates River...."

According to these concrete data, Aramu was definitely the king of the united Urartu state between 858-844 BC. However, Arame was not the father of Sarduri I, as the Sardur Burcu, the first known written document of the Urartu Kingdom, clearly shows. According to some scholars, there was a dynastic change when the kingdom passed from Arame to Sarduri I. The tribes loyal to Sarduri I probably took Aramu's tribes under their sovereignty and ensured that Sarduri I came to power. King Aramu succeeded in establishing a new organisation which was governed by a kingdom instead of a confederation. He strengthened first Sugunia and then Arzaskun and made these cities the administrative centres of the Urartu-Nairi Unified State, bringing the territory of the core country surrounding Lake Van under his control with these powerful royal cities. The destruction and looting of both capitals by Salmanassar III and the expeditions of this king against Urartu, the overcoming of mountains, the taking of booty and artefacts are vividly depicted in the bronze reliefs of the famous Balabat Gate, which is now exhibited in the British Museum. (This is the first pictorial document representing Urartu). However, despite taking such a measure, that is, despite the establishment of Arzaskun in a more remote region, it could not save itself from the destruction of Assyria.

SARDURI I (840-825 BC)

    The powerful king Sarduri I, whose name appears as Seduri in the annals of Salmanassar III, is considered to be the true founder of the Urartu State, that is, the kingdom. In the 27th year of the reign of Salmanassar III, that is, in the events of 832 BC, he says exactly the following about it.

"......I gathered my chariots and riders together. I sent Turtan (Commander-in-Chief) against Daian-Assyrian Urartu. Seduri of Urartu learnt about it. Relying on the strength of his troops, he turned against me and was defeated in battle...."

    However, it is understood that this was not a large-scale defeat. In the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions, which are repeated six times on the block stones of a monumental structure called Sardur Burcu or Mother Burç, which is now called Sardur Burcu or Mother Burç, at the northwest end of the cliff on which the capital city Tushpa, that is, the magnificent Van Castle, which is understood to have been founded by Sarduri I, he identifies himself as the king of Urartu and says exactly the following.

".....The inscription of Sarduri, the son of the great King Lutupri, the mighty king, the king of the universe, the king of the land of Nairi, the king without equal, the terrifying shepherd who is not afraid of war, the king who destroys those who do not submit to him; I am Sarduri, the son of Lutupri, the king of kings, the king of kings, who accepts taxes from all kings. Sarduri, son of Lutupri, says: "I brought these stone blocks from the city of Alniunu, I built this rampart (wall)...."

G.A. MELİKİSHVİLİ, Urartskie Klinoobrazyne Nadpisi,  Moskova, 1960.

M.N. VAN LOON, Urartian Art: Its Distinctive Traits in the Light of new Ezcavations.Lerden,                 1966, İstanbul

B.B. PİOTROVSKİİ, Urartu : The Kingdom Of Van and Its Art. London, 1967

C.A. BURNEY, The Peoples of the Hills, Ancient Ararat and Caucasus London, 1971.

LIFE OF PROCOPIUS

  

 Procopius, one of the most important historians of Byzantine History and the Justianic Period, wrote about the city of Kaiseria, founded by the Romans on the seashore of Palestine,

    He is thought to have been born in or shortly before 500 AD. He would have studied in Constantinople or in Gaza, an important Hellenic cultural centre where the classical rhetorical tradition was established and where the school of philosophy reconciled neo-Platonism with Christianity. In 527 AD he became a private scribe and legal adviser (symboulos) to the commander Belisarius. He participated in campaigns in Iran, Africa and Italy with the commander Belisarius. He was in Istanbul during the great plague epidemic in 542 AD. After the death of Theodora, he established relations with Justianius and became illustres (distinguished and enlightened) in 560, and in 562 he became Byzantine city administrator or Praefectur in Latin. He is believed to have died in 565, the same year as Justianius.

WORKS

    The historian has three important works. Wars, which consists of eight books, Structures and Secret History, which consists of six books.

Wars

    In his book History of Wars; He describes the campaigns he participated in with Belisarius. The first three volumes are on the war with the Goths (De Bello Gothica), two volumes are on the war with the Persians (De Bello Persico), two volumes are on the war with the Vandals (De Bello Vandalico), and the eighth volume is a later addition.

Structures

    It deals with the works built or repaired on the territory of the Empire during the reign of Justianius and consists of six books based on three main themes: church buildings, fortifications and waterworks. Book I covers the buildings in Constantinople and its outskirts, Book II covers the defences surrounding the farthest borders of the Empire. Book III deals with the defence structures on the borders with Persia, Book IV with those in Europe, Book V with those in the remaining parts of Asia, and Book VI with those in Africa. While Books I and II are dealt with in a certain completeness, from Book III onwards, he is contented with giving a list.

    Secret History

    Ostrogorsky, one of the important Byzantine historians, emphasised the importance of the work by calling the Secret History "the famous Secret History", and Procopius, in his introduction, said: "In the events discussed in my previous narrative, I was obliged to conceal the causes that led to their formation. Therefore, in this book, it is necessary not only to explain what has remained hidden until now, but also to explain the causes of the formations previously described". In 1623 a copy was found in the Vatican Library and in the same year it was partially published in Lyon by Alemannus, who found some parts of it objectionable. In 1663, a complete edition was published in Paris by Maltretus. The ancient Greeks called the Secret History Anecdota, in Latin it was called Historia Arcana, and English Historians translated it into English as Anecdotes.

    In Chapter 1, Commander Belisarius and his wife Antonina, in Chapter 2, the emperor justinus period before Justianius and how Justianius ascended the throne, in Chapter 3, Justianius' mismanagement, in Chapter 4, Theodora's affairs, in Chapter 5. Chapter 5 declares that Justianius is the devil disguised as a human being, Chapter 6 describes how Theodora and Justianius oppressed various classes of society, Chapter 7 describes Justianius' fondness for money.

    STYLE

    We know that Procopius received a classical education for that period. In his time, the Byzantine Empire was under the influence of both ancient Rome and Greek civilisation. We see that Procopius followed the methods of Herodotus and Thucydides in his official histories inspired by the ancient historians. We can say that he was under the influence of classical writers and thinkers due to his quotations from the plays of Aristophanes. The difference in style and interpretation between the three works of the historian emerges in his attitude towards the Emperor and brings along the temporal problem. While criticising the Emperor in his work titled Wars, in Structures, we encounter praise for the Emperor in the Christian ideology, while in the Secret History, the Emperor is vilified and his cruelty and mismanagement are emphasised. Especially in the Secret History, we see that the actions against the aristocratic class are criticised by Procopius. This shows that he came from the upper strata, if not from the top, and that he had an elitist view. Av. Cameron, in his work on the temporal problem, Procopius and the Sixth Century (1985), argues that the books I-VII of the Wars were written in 550 A.D., Book VIII in 554 A.D., the Secret History in 550 A.D., and the Structures in 554 A.D., based on comments and styles.

PHRYGIAN GODDESS KYBELE

    When we talk about the countless blessings that nature offers to mankind, we say "what Mother Nature has given us". We talk about the damages caused to "mother nature" by the fossil fuels we use and the many chemicals we consume. But how many of us are aware that the concept of "Mother Nature" or "Mother Nature" is associated with Cybele, the Phrygian goddess of Ancient Anatolia?

    In ancient times, the region of Anatolia known as Phrygia was bordered by Mysia, Lydia and Caria to the west, Galatia and Lyakonia to the east, Bithynia to the north, Pisidia and Lycia to the south.  Phrygia was not only the cradle of the Phrygian civilisation, but also influential in the field of religion by presenting the belief in Cybele to its neighbours of that era and to Greece and Rome in later periods. The goddesses known as Kybebe in Lydia, Isis in Egypt, Artemis in Ephesus, Rhea in Crete, Demeter in Greece and Magna Mater in Rome are merely the reflections of Phrygian Kybele under different names.

    As a goddess of nature, Cybele is responsible for the order in nature. But primarily she symbolises the fertility of the soil. Being the protector of agriculture also makes it possible to see her as the founder of social progress, civilisation and cities. In the depictions of the goddess, the tower figures on the diadem (crown) on her head emphasise this characteristic of her.

    The mother goddess of Phrygia was worshipped especially in the mountains. One of her names, Dindyme, is related to the worship of the goddess on the Dindymos mountain in the region. There are three mountains with this name in Ancient Anatolia, all of which are in the vicinity of the Phrygian region. One of them is the Günyüzü mountain around the city of Pessinus (Ballıhisar) on the Sangarios (Sakarya) river, which was the centre of the cult of Cybele. The first temple, which also hosted a meteorite, the first depiction of the goddess, was also here.

    Agdistis, another name of the goddess, was derived from a rock known as Agdus, which was also located on Mount Dindymos and believed to be sacred.  Her name is also mentioned as Agdistis in the myth originating from Pessinus.

Cybele Myth

    According to the legend; God Zeus had a dream and poured his seeds on a rock and a hermaphrodite being emerged from it. The gods cut off the male organ of this being named Agdistis. When the limb fell to the ground, an almond tree grew out of it. Nana, the daughter of the river Sangarios, plucked an almond from the tree and hid it in her chest. She became pregnant from this fruit and a boy named Attis was born. When he became a beautiful young man, Agdistis fell in love with this young man. But he decided to marry the daughter of the king of Pessinus. Agdistis, who appeared on the wedding day, caused the young man to go mad, castrate himself and die. The king also castrated himself.

    In another version of the story; Zeus spills his seeds on the stone known as Agdus, a manifestation of the goddess Cybele. Agdistis is born. When the god Dionysus gets him drunk, he passes out and cuts off his male organ. An almond tree grows from his limb. Nana, the daughter of the river Sangarios, hides an almond from this tree in her breast and becomes pregnant. Attis is born. When he comes of age, both Cybele and Agdistis fall in love with him. Midas, the king of Phrygia, wants to marry this young man to his daughter. Agdistis causes the young man to lose his mind and he castrates himself under a pine tree and dies. Cybele buries him. Violets grow at the bottom of the pine tree watered with his blood. Midas' daughter also commits suicide. Goddess buries her too. An almond tree grows on her grave along with violets. When Agdistis asks Zeus to keep Attis' body intact, the god only allows his hair to grow and one of his fingers to keep moving. Agdistis takes the body of her beloved to Pessinus and buries it and organises a festival in his memory. It is also rumoured that Attis was killed by a wild boar, and it is associated with this rumour that especially the people of Pessinus refrain from eating pork.

    Another point to be emphasised about the myth of Cybele-Attis, which symbolically describes the fertility of the soil with the elements it contains, is that the story is similar to the myths of Ishtar-Tammuz in Babylonian mythology and Astarte-Adonis in Syrian mythology.

Cybele Temple and Cybele Festivals

    The cult centre in Pessinus, where the ceremonies for the Phrygian goddess were held, was headed by two high priests. These clergymen, called Attis and Megabyzos, who castrated themselves when they entered the service of the goddess, were also the administrators of the cult centre.The ceremonies in honour of the goddess were held in spring, when the earth awakened and the shoots began to sprout, and lasted five days. On the first day of the celebrations, Attis was mourned. The trunk of a pine tree, considered sacred, was wrapped with pieces of woollen cloth and paraded through the streets. On the second day, other priests of Cybele, known as Gallos, would dance ecstatically to the accompaniment of musical instruments such as drums, tambourines and cymbals. Just like the "Korybants" in the myth; who wandered around the countryside with torches in their hands in pursuit of the goddess and danced wildly to the music. The third day was reserved for bloody ceremonies. Participants in the ritual cut their bodies and shed blood. On the fourth day, Attis' resurrection was celebrated with joyful dances, and the last day was spent in rest.

    The worship of Cybele spread throughout the Aegean and Mediterranean by the travelling priests of Phrygia. Kybele's qualities are also expressed in the personalities and myths of the goddesses Rhea, Artemis and Demeter, who have a considerable importance in the belief system of continental Greece. The greatest similarity is with Demeter. She too is primarily an earth goddess. She is the protector of wheat and the assurance of the product.

    The goddess known as Magna Mater (Great Mother) in Rome is Kybele herself. The introduction of her cult to Rome took place in 205-204 BC during the war with Carthage. There is a meteorite rain in the city. The frightened people consulted the Sibylla books, which were kept in the temple of Jupiter and contained the prophecies of the priestess of the god Apollo. Accordingly, if Phrygia's Cybele temple is brought to the city, the Carthaginian army will be expelled from Italy. A group of envoys travelled to Anatolia and received from King Attalos the black stone, the first manifestation of the goddess in Pessinus. The stone is placed in the temple of Victory on the Palatine hill of the city of Rome. After winning the war (202 BC), a temple for the goddess was built here. In honour of the goddess, who was named Magna Mater, a festival called Megalensia is held every year between 4-9 April.

    It is interesting to note that the celebrations in Rome were also led by a priest of Cybele from Phrygia. A Phrygian priestess and eunuch priests (Galloi) would pass through the city in a procession during the celebrations. Citizens were forbidden to participate in the celebrations. Only a group of prominent Roman aristocrats were allowed to join in the festivities.   

    The story of the Phrygian goddess in Rome takes a different turn in the early period of the empire, and the belief in Cybele-Attis leads to the birth of another festival. The ceremonies; in which a group of clergymen (quindecimviri) as well as all women and men could participate; were held between 15-27 March, also in spring. On the first day; cane-carrying priests called "kanofori" carried cut tree canes to the temple of the goddess. Seven days later, the "dendrofi" or tree-bearer priests brought a pine tree cut from the forest. The trunk of the tree was wrapped with ribbons like a corpse and a depiction of Attis was tied in the centre. The tree represented the dead god. On 24 March, "dies sanguinis" or blood day, eunuch priests (galloi) and candidates for initiation began a wild dance to the accompaniment of flutes, cymbals and tambourines, whipped their backs until they bled, and cut their arms with knives. At the height of the frenzy, some candidates cut off their male organs and offered them to the goddess. The lamentations of death that filled the night between 24 March and 25 March were replaced the next morning by a sudden burst of joy at the news of the god's resurrection. That day was "hilaria", the day of joy. After a day's rest, on 27 March, a great procession was held to the river, where the statue of Cybele was immersed in water (lavatio). From the 2nd century AD, candidates for puberty were purified with the blood of a bull or ram (taurobolium or criobolium). They also offered this animal to the goddess instead of their own male organs.

    The fact that these sacrificial ceremonies were organised at all seasons in the imperial age, not only for individual maturation but also for the well-being of the monarchy, points to the prestige of the Phrygian mother goddess in Rome.

    Apuleius, the famous Roman poet, orator and philosopher, in his novel "Transfigurations" or "Asinus Aureus", introduces the Phrygian from his own mouth: "I, the mother of nature, the lord of all elements, the firstborn of the ages, the greatest of the gods, the queen of the dead, the guide of the celestial beings, the one who gathers all the forms of gods and goddesses into one... With a nod of my head, I rule all the bright peaks of the sky, the healthy winds of the sea and the sorrowful silence of the underworld. My divinity is unique. The whole world worships me in my various forms. With different ceremonies and under various names. The Phrygians, the first lineage of mankind, call me the mother of the gods from Pessinus. The earth-born people of Attica call me Minerva of Kekrops. Venus of Paphos, say the Kyprosians beaten by the seas. The Cretans, who never part with their alms, call me Diktynna Diana. The Sicilians, who speak three languages, call me Proserpina of the Styx. The ancient people of Eleusis know me as Ceres of Attica. Some call me Juno, some Bellona. Some call me Hecate, some Rhamnusia... Egyptians, who adhere to their ancient beliefs, call me the Goddess Isis..."

Is there a better answer to the question "Who is the Phrygian goddess?"

Bibliography

Apuleius, Başkalaşımlar, Kabalcı Yayınları, çev: Çiğdem Dürüşken, İstanbul, 2006.

Eliade, Mircea, Dinsel İnançlar ve Düşünceler Tarihi, II. cilt, Kabalcı Yayınları, çev: Ali Berktay, İstanbul, 2003.

Erhat, Azra, Mitoloji Sözlüğü, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 1984.

Frazer, James G, Altın Dal-Din ve Folklorun Kökenleri, I.cilt, Payel Yayınları, çev: Mehmet H. Doğan, İstanbul, 2004.

Graves, Robert, New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, The Hamlyn Publishing, London, 1959.

Seyffert, Oscar, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, George Allen&Unwin Ltd., London, 1957.

Speake, Graham, Dictionary of Ancient History, Penguin Books, London, 1994.

ARTEMIS and the essence of her mother divinity

    Man lives in a universe of symbols. Everything that surrounds us; numbers, colours, shapes are symbols.

    Human beings comprehend each historical phenomenon with symbols/symbols. It is undeniable that mankind has used symbols expressing this power on the way to a divine power and creation by concretising the events he has seen or perceived in nature since the Upper Palaeolithic Period. These symbols are the very essence of nature, the cycle of reproduction and death, and nature itself.

    The cult of the mother goddess is found in every region of Anatolia since Prehistoric times. The characteristics of this belief, which provides all kinds of abundance and fertility and has great power over plants and animals, have developed depending on natural conditions.

    God and idol are synonymous in Neolithic Period cultures. The idols created especially at Çatalhöyük in the Neolithic Age and at almost all settlements during the Chalcolithic Age and at Alaca and Kültepe in the following Bronze Age are the fruits of the Mother Goddess cult in Anatolia. With the Early Bronze Age; the Mother Goddess Wurushemu, who was perceived abstractly in Hatti, becomes the Sun Goddess of Arriana and Hepat in Yazılıkaya by becoming pictorialised in the Hittite Civilisation of the Middle and Late Bronze Age. Even the fall of the Hittites could not destroy this belief, which was worshipped in every region of Anatolia. Like ploughed soil, like a tree whose branches have been pruned, it continues uninterruptedly with the New Hittite Kubaba. This continuity affects Phrygian art and beliefs in sculpture and Cybele beliefs, and the 7th century BC Phrygian Cybele paintings shape the Ionian Goddesses. The Archaic Age shows the first signs of the golden age of Ionian art. After the Persian invasion, the belief in the Mother Goddess and the symbols expressing her have now left Anatolia and reached the opposite shore. All the goddesses known as "Greek" were born from her, only their names changed.

    Artemis emerged from this idea, daughter of Zeus and Leto, sister of Apollo. Even this mythos cannot tear her away from Anatolia, the arrival of the Achaeans in front of Troy binds her to her ancestral land and keeps the Trojans. He sits on the mountains and peaks again. He inhabits the forested valleys. All plants and animals are under her control.(Potnia Theron) According to another local rumour of antiquity, Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis not in Delos, but in Patara and Ephesus in the pains of holy birth, in the Anatolian Mother Goddess's own land.

    Artemis draws her essence from nature and the cult of the Anatolian Mother Goddess. So much so that she is symbolised by the very primitive image "xoanon", a statue of an almost unhewn tree. Artemidoros of Ephesus, who lived in the second century AD, recommends the worship of Artemis Ephesia and Eleuthera as well as the old abstract form of Artemis Pergaia.

    Artemis Eleuthera, Artemis Pergaia, Artemis of Ephesos, Phrygian Cybele and Neo-Hittite Kubaba share common characteristics.  It is known that the Goddess Artemis was worshipped in Myra with the epithet Eleuthera and festivals were held in honour of the Goddess. And this worship continued until the Roman Period. So much so that the depiction on the reverse side of one of the Myra city coins of the reign of Gordianus III (238-244 A.D.) is very interesting.

    While the goddess is depicted as a whole with the tree trunk, two snakes prevent two figures on her right and left from attempting to cut the tree with axes in their hands. It is interesting that this depiction appears on a coin during the Roman Period. In other words, by emphasising the identity of the goddess with nature, it is expressed that this belief and worship is protected by nature itself. The fact that the idea of perceiving the divine power in the tree goes back to the Bronze Age Beycesultan with concrete findings coincides with the fact that Eleuthera was "born" from the essence of the Anatolian Mother Goddess. Artemis Pergaia, locally known as Wanassa Periia, who was worshipped in Perge, is depicted in relief on a pillar belonging to the skene frons of the Perge Theatre; with her high calathos on her head and inside the temple.

    In Ephesos, the most important Artemis cult centre known, the goddess shows us her identity with nature with her high headdress, plant and animal ornaments, breast-like braids on her torso symbolising fertility and fertility, and deer figures on both sides. It is difficult to make a definite judgement whether the "stele" shaped abstract body of both goddesses and the Artemis of Kaumos symbolises the "tree" or the rock in which her power is perceived; what is known is that in every case the Mother Goddess exists in that essence.

The best historical places in Antalya

 Some historical places you can visit in Antalya:

    Antalya Kaleici: Kaleiçi, the historical centre of Antalya, contains historical buildings from the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empire periods. While travelling in this region, you can see many important historical buildings such as the historical clock tower, Hıdırlık Tower, Hadrian's Gate, Yivli Minaret, Kesik Minaret and historical houses.

    Perge Ancient City: The ancient city of Perge, located 18 km east of Antalya, was founded during the Roman Empire and had a population of 15,000 people. Here you can visit many historical buildings such as ancient theatre, agora, stadium, baths and city walls.

    Aspendos Ancient Theatre: Aspendos Ancient Theatre, located in the Serik district of Antalya, was built during the Roman Empire. With a capacity of 15,000 people, the theatre is one of the best preserved ancient theatres in the world.

    Termessos Ancient City: Termessos Ancient City, located in the west of Antalya, is a city in the Lycian region. Located on the top of a steep mountain, the city contains many historical buildings such as city walls, agora, theatre, baths and mausoleums.

    Myra Ancient City: Myra Ancient City, located in the west of Antalya, is an important city in the Lycian region. Here you can visit important buildings such as ancient theatre, mausoleums and St. Nicholas Church.

    Side Ancient City: Side Ancient City, located in the Manavgat district of Antalya, hosts many historical buildings from the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Here you can visit important structures such as ancient theatre, agora, colonnaded street, Temple of Apollo and aqueducts.

    Phaselis Ancient City: Phaselis Ancient City, located in Kemer district of Antalya, is an ancient city in the Lycian region. Here you can visit important buildings such as ancient theatre, agora, baths and harbour.

    Alanya Castle: Alanya Castle, located in the Alanya district of Antalya, is a castle complex dating from the Seljuk period. The castle contains many historical buildings such as walls, towers, mosques and baths. By climbing the castle, you can see a view dominating the castle.

    Antalya Museum Antalya Museum has a rich museum collection that tells the history and culture of Antalya. The museum contains many historical artefacts such as archaeological finds from the Lycian period, mosaics from the Roman period, churches from the Byzantine period and manuscripts from the Ottoman period.

    Antalya Clock Tower: The clock tower, one of the historical symbols of Antalya, is located in the Kaleiçi region. The clock tower, which belongs to the Ottoman period, has a 3-storey structure and has an impressive appearance especially with its night lighting.

ANCIENT CITY OF EPHESUS

     

    

The first foundation of the ancient city of Ephesus within the borders of Selçuk District in İzmir Province dates back to 6000 BC. Recent researches and excavations have revealed Bronze Age and Hittite settlements in the mounds (prehistoric hill settlements) around Ephesus and on Ayasuluk Hill where the castle is located. The name of the city was Apasas during the Hittite Period. The harbour city of Ephesus, where immigrants from Greece started to live in 1050 BC, was moved around the Temple of Artemis in 560 BC. Ephesus, which is visited today, was founded by Lysimakhos, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, around 300 BC. Ephesus, which lived its most glorious times during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, had a population of 200,000 people as the capital of the Asian province and the largest harbour city. Ephesus was relocated again during the Byzantine Period and came to Ayasuluk Hill in Selçuk, where it was founded for the first time.

What is the most important feature of the ancient city of Ephesus?

    Ephesus, which was the main gate between East and West, was an important harbour city. This position enabled Ephesus to develop as the most important political and commercial centre of its time and to become the capital of the province of Asia during the Roman period. Ephesus does not only owe its importance in ancient times to this. The largest temple of the Artemis cult based on the ancient Anatolian mother goddess (Cybele) tradition is also located in Ephesus. The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus is considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Ephesus was an ancient Greek city on the west coast of Anatolia, 3 kilometres from today's Selçuk district, which later became an important Roman city. It was one of the twelve cities of Ionia during the classical Greek period. Its foundation dates back to 6000 BC in the Neolithic Age. The first foundation of the ancient city of Ephesus within the borders of Selçuk District of İzmir Province dates back to 6000 BC, the Neolithic Period, the Neolithic Stone Age. Recent researches and excavations have revealed Bronze Age and Hittite settlements in the mounds (prehistoric hill settlements) around Ephesus and on Ayasuluk Hill where the castle is located. 

    The name of the city was Apasas during the Hittite Period. The harbour city of Ephesus, where immigrants from Greece started to live in 1050 BC, was moved around the Temple of Artemis in 560 BC. Ephesus, which is visited today, was founded by Lysimakhos, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, around 300 BC. Ephesus, which lived its most glorious periods in the Hellenistic and Roman ages, had a population of 200.000 people as the capital of the Asian province and the largest harbour city. Ephesus was relocated again in the Byzantine Age and came to Ayasuluk Hill in Selçuk, where it was first founded. In 1330, Ayasuluk was taken over by the Turks and became the centre of Aydınoğulları, and gradually started to shrink from the 16th century onwards. After the establishment of the Republic in 1923, it was renamed Selçuk and today it is a touristic place with a population of 30.000 people. Ephesus, one of the most important centres of the ancient world, has always played an important role in the fields of civilisation, science, culture and art throughout its history dating back to the 4th millennium BC. Ephesus, which was the main gate between East and West (Asia and Europe), was an important harbour city. This position enabled Ephesus to develop as the most important political and commercial centre of its age and to become the capital of the province of Asia during the Roman period. However, Ephesus did not only owe its importance in antiquity to its development as a major trade centre and its status as a capital city. The largest temple of the Artemis cult based on the ancient Anatolian mother goddess (Cybele) tradition is also located in Ephesus. This temple is considered one of the seven wonders of the world. Since Ephesus has been relocated many times throughout its history, its ruins spread over a wide area. These ruins spread over an area of approximately 8 km², excavation-restoration and arrangement works have been carried out and are open to visitors.

1- Ayasuluk Hill (the earliest settlement dated to the 3rd millennium BC and the Church of St. Jean, which belongs to the Byzantine period and is of great importance for the Christian world)

2- Artemision (an important religious centre from the 9th-4th centuries BC; Temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the world)

3- Ephesus (Archaic-Classical-Hellenistic-Roman and Byzantine Period settlement)

4- Selçuk (Seljuk, Ottoman settlement and the modern city that hosts this settlement, which is an important tourism centre today), Ephesus, which was an important civilisation centre in ancient times, is still an important tourism centre visited by an average of 1.5 million people annually.

    The first archaeological excavations in Ephesus began in 1869 by J.T. Wood on behalf of the British Museum. Wood's excavations to find the famous Temple of Artemis were continued by D.G. Hogarth after 1904. The Austrian excavations at Ephesus, which continue today, were first started in 1895 by Otto Benndorf. The work of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, which was interrupted during the First and Second World Wars, continued uninterruptedly after 1954. In addition to the work of the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Ephesus, the Ephesus Museum has been carrying out excavation, restoration and arrangement works on behalf of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism since 1954.