KIBYRA

 

Kibyra ancient city was founded on low hills, heights of which differ from 950 m and 1350 m,  to the West of Burdur, in Gölhisar. The city was at the junction of Lycian, Karian and Phrygian cultural areas and in the center of a trade route connecting the North to the South and the East to the West in early periods. The area was called as ‘Kabalia’ in early periods and ‘Kibyratis’ during Hellenistic and Roman periods. Although the meaning of the word is not known exactly, Kibyra is not a Hellenistic name. Common view is that it belonged to a language used by Luvians, people who lived in western and southwestern Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age, and this unknown name was changed as Kibyra in Hellen. According to Strabo, a traveller from Anatolia, Kibyrians were of Lydian origin and they moved to Kabalis from there. It is also obvious that there were also migrations from Pisidia, Milyas and Solym to the area and all these people joined and established Kibyra, the width of which reached to 100 stadia. Strabo also emphasized that four different languages, Lydian, Solymi, Psidian, Hellenic, were spoken in the city. Strabo’s description about the foundation of the city has been supported by the archaeological finds from Uylupınar, a settlement approximately 18 km away from Kibyra. The settlement around Uylupınar village of Gölhisar and the rocky area around Gölhisar Lake has finds dating back to the Early Iron Age. This settlement is most probably the area where Kibyrians had settled long before they moved to the city, which can be seen today, in other words ‘Old Kibyra’. Old architectural ruins of the city today are from the Roman Imperial Period and Late Antiguity.

Kibyra was an autonomous city which could coin its own money during the Hellenistic Period.  It is known that the quadruple council  (Kabalis Tetrapolis / Association of Four Cities in Kabalis Region) which was established in the second century BC under the leadership of Kibyra and consisted of Bubon, Balboura and Oinoanda, cities located nearby, played an important role in the political history of the area. It seems that the council was a decision making mechanism based on voting of city representatives.  In this political association, Kibyra had two votes, whereas the other cities had one vote each. According to Strabo, Kibyra had two votes for providing 30.0000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. Records show that the council was eliminated by Roman commander Murena in 82 BC. After this period, Kibyra was incorporated into Asia Minor and the other cities were incorporated into the Lycian League. During the Roman Period, it became the judicial centre of Asia Minor’s state governor.

The city, destroyed by an earthquake in 23 AD, was exempted from tax for five years and it was donated money by Roman Emperor Tiberius. Thus, the city was rebuilt and Kbyrians showed their gratitude by naming their city as ‘Caesera Kibyra’. After the second devastating eartquake in 417 AD, the city lost its architectural plan and continued its existence getting smaller and losing its glory during Late Antiguity.

Kibyra main city is on three hills seperated from each other by deep cliffs. It is seen that public, civil and religious buildings were organized symmetrically to form completeness. All the buildings were placed on the terraced hill so as not to spoil each other’s lake and valley view.

Necropolis, consisting of many different architectural styles, surrounds the hill where public buildings are seen densely. These buildings are dense between the Stadion in the East and the West ridge of the hill where the Theatre and the Odeon are. On the same axis, main street, secondary routes, basilica with administrative and judicial functions, temples, social and commercial market place (Agora), temples and small shops, symbols of economical liveliness of the city, can be seen. According to the records and inscriptions, Kibyra was famous for its ironworking, leather trade and horse breeding. It has also been found out that ceramic fabrication was of great importance in Kibyra.

Excavation and research studies in Kibyra, under the leadership of the Burdur Museum, started in 2006. It has been a continuous excavation by the decision of the Council of Ministers on behalf of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University headed by Associate Professor Şükrü Özdoğru since 2010. Since 2006, Stadion, Odeion (Music House), Agora, Necropolis, Late Antiguity Bath, Caiserion, Roman Imperial Bath and Basilica have been excavated. Stadion, Odeion and Bath excavations have been completed. Work continues in Agora, Main Street, Necropolis, Caisarion, Basilica and the Bath Complex from the Roman Imperial Period.

 

KIBYRA CAISARION (EMPEROR CULT TEMPLE)

 

            Caisarion is located to the Southwest of the main hill. The hill, at this point, goes towards the stream (Kanlı Dere)  in South and West directions by forming steep crests and  creating an area to control everywhere easily. Caiserion was built at this dominant point of the city. The reason why it is called as ‘Caisarion’ is the inscriptions. Inscriptions are reliable proofs to show us that the construction was built for the memory of Emperor Augustus and his wife Livia, by the order of Emperor Cladius (41-54 AD). Thanks to the insriptions, it is also understood that it was built during the reign of Emperor Cladius. Therefore, this construction must have been built as a Caisarion (emperor cult temple). Facade of the North-South directioned construction is on the North. Total area of the construction is 16.00 x 8.90 m. Findings, which can be seen today, give us information about the structure because the whole construction except for the foundation must have been destroyed by the devastating earthquake in 417 AD. Caisarion is originally an Ionic emperor cult temple built in ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­prostylos (four columns on the facade).

KIBYRA THOLOS NYMPHAEUM (ROUND FOUNTAIN)

 

The round fountain structure decorated with columns, embossed friezes and sculptures was unearthed during the 2016 excavations in the city square functioning as a social and cultural gathering area on the level of Terrace III of the Agora.

 The structure consists of a round body with a water system laid in the center, formed with blockwork, and two circular pools, one inside and one outside, surrounding it. The central structure is covered with a conical roof carried by columns. The fountain, which was apparently built for the first time after the earthquake of 23 AD, has three different phases of use: In its first phase of use, it consists of a single pool and a circular body with a central water system, and a second pool was probably added in the late second and early third centuries AD. Although it is understood that the roof of the fountain collapsed and was extensively damaged in the 417 AD earthquake; archaeological data show that the structure was used with the same function in the Late Eastern Roman Period, probably until the end of the VII century AD, after some renovations. The excavations revealed that the building was not only a fountain (nymphaion), but also a castellum that provided water distribution to its immediate surroundings; and a visual water monument decorated with sculptures, columns and architrave-friezes with girlanded architraves carrying the conical roof. Due to its location, it was placed in the busiest square of the city, visible to those coming to the Agora from the direction of the Theater and Odeion, as well as from the direction of the Stadion.

The diameter of the structure, together with the stone drainage troughs surrounding the outer round pool, is 14.91 meters in total, and its estimated height should have been approximately 8 meters with the conical roof covering only the central body through which the water system passes. In its current state after the restoration was completed, it is 6.76 meters high. The thick-walled main funnels supplying water to the fountain, which only had a central cylindrical body and a single pool in Phase I, were made of terracotta. The water from the ancient spring in the Böğrüdelik plateau was poured into the first pool through six marble statues between the supporting columns in the central platform. Only two of these statues were recovered during the excavations, depicting Heracles reclining on a lion's pelt and Dionysus the Younger reclining on a panther's pelt. According to the traces on the outer pool, there should have originally been twelve bronze statues on the outer pool. Unfortunately, no trace of them was found.

The restoration project prepared for the Nymphaeum, which was approved by the decision of the Antalya Regional Board for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage dated 30.07.2021 and numbered 12576, was carried out by the Kibyra Excavation Team between August and October 2022. The restored structure was raised to its feet and water from the ancient spring was poured, thus restoring it to its original function two thousand years after its first construction.

KIBYRA BASILICAL PLANNED CHURCH

    The Basilical Planned Church, located just above the Kibyra Stadion, is the largest religious building of the Eastern Roman period city, measuring 20.00 x 48.00 m from exterior to exterior. This church has a basilica plan with three naves and a triconchos (clover-shaped) apse. The central apse has an altar and synthronon, while the pastophorion rooms are located behind the side apses. The three rooms to the south of the basilica and the rooms next to it are burial chambers. In the first room in the east, an altar and a relicer were found inside the altar. In the other rooms, burials were made in terracotta sarcophagi under the floor. In front of the basilica is a landing added later. From here, the narthex (the covered front space at the entrance of the church) is entered through four doors, two at the front and one on each side. The floor is paved with opus sipicatum (rectangular pieces of terracotta/tile arranged side by side to form the spica (spike) motif that gives the floor its name) decorated with different geometric ornaments. Entered through three doors from the narthex is the naos section (the place where the congregation gathers in basilicas consisting of the central and side naves). The naos is divided into three naves by colonnades (spaces within the naos, placed perpendicular to the apse, separated from each other by columns or pillars). During the excavations, it was observed that the floor of the central nave was paved with marble slabs reclaimed from Roman Imperial Period buildings. The floor of the side naves, which are separated by colonnades from Roman Imperial buildings, is paved with opus spicatum. At the eastern end of the naos is the bema (a raised space with an altar separated from the naos by parapets and accessible only to priests). The bema is surrounded by a buttressed tempo (a parapeted section separating the naos from the altar room). In the center of this area, traces of the etching of the metal doors on the stone are still visible. A four-legged altar table was excavated in the center of the area. In the central apse, there is a stepped Synthronon (stone or wooden seating benches placed inside the apse). To the north and south of the main apse, two rooms were exposed. These rooms are called "pastophorion". The room to the north, where bread and wine were prepared, is the "prothesis" room. The room to the south, where liturgical objects or vestments were kept, is called "diakonikon". To the south of the basilica are the burial chambers, which seem to have been planned together with the building. In the first room, which is accessed through the diaconicon room and paved with marble, an altar is observed to the east of the row of three opposite columns. During the excavations, a silver relicer (objects in different forms made for placing relics belonging to holy people) was found inside this altar. This room and the rooms to its west were used as burial areas. Fifty-five terracotta sarcophagi placed under the floors of the rooms were found during the excavations. Architectural fragments, ceramic vessels, lamps, coins and medallions were found inside the basilical planned church with triconchos apse. The dating of the building is based on its plan with triconchos apse, which is not very common in Anatolia, and it is thought that it was built in the 5th-6th century AD after the 417 AD earthquake, which was the second largest earthquake that the city suffered according to ancient sources.

The Urartians

  

     According to historical sources and archaeological findings, the Urartians, who formed a part of the history of ancient Anatolia, appeared on the stage of history between the VIII century BC and the VI century BC. It was defined as "Uruatri" in Assyrian sources. It meant high country, mountainous country.

    Following this, Uratri, and then Urartu. In the same century, the Nairi principality emerged. They are mentioned in contemporary Assyrian sources. From the IXth century BC onwards, they adopt the Assyrian cuneiform tradition and inscriptions and tablets in their own language are on the agenda. In their own written sources, they identify themselves with the name "Bidini" (li). On the other hand, the names Urartu and Nairi given to them by Assyria are also seen in their own inscriptions.

    The Urartu Civilisation was forgotten in a short time and remained in the memory as a nation mentioned only in a few places until research on this subject began. The name Urartu is known from the Torah. (r.r.r_ Ararat) In connection with the Noahic legend, it is mentioned that Noah's ark was seated on Mount Ararat. In another passage there is a little bit of information. In the famous work of Herodotus, they are referred to as "Alarots". Later Late Antique Sources and Medieval historians accepted that all Urartian works of art were made by the Assyrians. For example, Moses of Khoroneli (of Armenian descent), one of the historians of the V century A.D., writes that the city of Van, which rises on the shores of Lake Van, was built by the Assyrian Queen Samiram (Samiramis) and explains the name of the city as the city of Samiramis. According to this author, Samiramis brought 12,000 labourers and 6,000 builders from Assyria and the countries that paid tribute (tribute, tax) to the Assyrians and built this magnificent city in a short time. According to Moses, the great water canal irrigating the plain of Van was also built by the Assyrian Queen Samiramis. (Samiram is Armenian) Moses' work attracted the attention of orientalists in the modern world in the XIXth century.

THE BEGINNING OF URARTU RESEARCH

    In 1828, the French Society for the Study of Asia sent the archaeologist Friedrich Eduard Schulz to Turkey. He also travelled in Iran. Schulz visited the Van Castle described in detail by Moses, visited the tombs carved into the rocks, identified them as caves, drew their plans and copied the cuneiform inscriptions. In addition, while exploring the Van Plain, he came across a large water canal mentioned by Moses and claimed to have been built by Samiramis, and copied the inscriptions of this canal, called "Samiram Water" by the local people. Schulz's report caused great repercussions in Europe. It took more than a century to analyse these inscriptions, and only then was the historical truth revealed. Namely, Van Castle, the capital of Urartu, was built by Sardur I. The canal in question was built by Mehud, the grandson of Sardur I. King Mehud defeated Assyrian Queen Sammuramat and had this canal built to meet the water needs of Tuspa and irrigate the Van Plain. The murder of Schulz by bandits while conducting research in the mountainous region prevented the continuation of these scientific studies for a while. The material he sent to Paris in 1828 could only be published in 1840. In the same years, archaeological studies started in Mesopotamia in the Old Assyrian Country. Especially the discovery of the palace of Sargon II in Khorsabat in Assyria and the deciphering of the Assyrian cuneiform script shortly afterwards attracted the attention of the scientific world. Only after this, Urartian cuneiform documents also began to be deciphered. Following these first researches, artefacts from Van and its surroundings began to be brought to museums and private collections through illicit excavations. With the proliferation of these artefacts and the decipherment of the inscriptions, the idea that they belonged to the Urartian kings of Van gained strength. Nevertheless, for a long time, numerous Urartian artefacts were accepted as Assyrian artefacts and presented under this name. Towards the end of the 19th century, illicit excavations in and around Van increased and Toprakkale (Rusahilini) was looted. These illicit excavations fed the British Museum in Europe and the Louvre and Berlin museums in Paris. The proliferation of artefacts necessitated scientific excavations in this region. In 1845, the famous archaeologist and diplomat Henri Layard visited Van and in 1880 he sent his assistant Hormudz Rassam to Van. Both scholars conducted excavations of Assyrian palaces in Mesopotamia and introduced them to the scientific world. In 1879-1880, the British Museum sent a scientific delegation to Van. This delegation was headed by Captain Clayton (Vice Consul), the British Consul in Van. Rassam and an American missionary named Dr Reynolds also participated in the excavations mentioned above. However, the architectural remains and small finds left behind from the excavations carried out by antiquities smugglers did not satisfy this scientific committee investigating Toprakkale. This material was published only 80 years later by the famous British scientist Dr R. D. Barnett.  In 1898 and 1899, a scientific team headed by C.F. Lehmann - Haupt and W. Belck excavated Toprakkale again. In 1911-1912, this time Russian scientists were on the scene. An excavation team under the direction of I. A. Orbeli resumed excavations at Toprakkale. Following these years, Van was under Russian occupation between 1915 and 1918. During this war, the Tsarist Russian Archaeological Society appointed Prof. N.J. Marr to Van in 1916. The delegation led by Prof. Marr and Orbeli uncovered the sanctuary and cuneiform inscriptions of the Urartian King Sarduri II on the northern slopes of Van Castle. After the Russian delegation, in 1938, husband and wife Americans conducted research (Kirsopp and Silva Lake). However, the outbreak of World War II affected these studies. These are the first studies in Turkey.

    In Soviet Armenia, excavations in South Transcaucasia in the north-eastern regions of the Urartu Kingdom go back to ancient times. Urartian artefacts were first unearthed in 1862, and especially the inscriptions attracted attention. In 1893, M. Nikolskij travelled around Transcaucasia as a traveller and examined the Urartian fortresses near the places where the inscriptions were found. The real archaeological excavations started at the site called Taşburun and the Urartian city was investigated. According to the inscriptions, the fortress bears the name "Menuahinili". Following these excavations, in 1930, these ruins and inscriptions attracted the attention of the scientific world again and in 1939, systematic excavations were started at the mound named Karmir-Blur near the city of Yerevan. These excavations were carried out by Prof. B.B. Protrovski until recently. This great city was founded by Rusa I, the son of Argisti, and was named Teishebaini (Karmir-Blur). Especially the stadel part of this city provided detailed information about Urartian culture and architecture. (Urartian cities were named after their gods or kings. Terşe- God, Tushpa- Goddess).  Another excavated centre is located on the hill named Arinberd near Yerevan. Its name is Irpuni (Erebuni) and it is divine. Excavations started here in 1950 and continued by K. Ogehesian. Many construction inscriptions belonging to Menua's son Argishti I and Argishti's son Sarduri I were found here (city, foundation, warehouse inscriptions etc.). Nairi are communities of Huri origin and Uruatri are communities of Urartu origin. Their languages are Asiatic and similar.In 1964; excavations were resumed at Armavir-Blur and Davida mounds near Armavir.

NEW RESEARCH IN TURKEY

    The beginning of research in Turkey is as follows. In 1938, the Ankara Archaeological Museum acquired a collection of finds unearthed during the construction of a railway at Altin-tepe, near Erzincan. Among them, a three-legged bronze cauldron, shield and pieces of furniture attracted attention. However, twice in 1956-1957, the British scientist and archaeologist C.A. Burney revisited the castles in the Van region and published their plans. These were published in Anatolien Studies.

    The first scientific excavations started in 1956-1963 and continued intermittently. Altintepe excavations were directed by Prof. Dr Tahsin Özgüç. The tombs, temples and small finds unearthed in this excavation are remarkable. The excavations at Toparkkale were carried out in 1950-60-61 by a committee headed by Prof. Dr. Afif Erzen. The foundations of the temple, which had previously been unearthed during the excavations of the British Museum, were analysed in detail. A bronze shield decorated with lion and bull figures attracts attention. (A ceremonial shield is a religious shield hung on the temple wall).

    In the same years (1960-61), the Çavuştepe excavation in the Gürpınar Plain was also carried out by A. Erzen.  Çavuştepe excavation continued until recent times. This city bears the name of Sarduruhinili.  With its architecture, small finds and inscriptions, it yielded the most detailed and abundant material of the Urartian excavations in Turkey (Urartian fortresses were built on the tops of very high mountains).

    Since 1964, excavations have been carried out under the direction of Prof. Emin Bilgiç and Prof. Baki Öğün at the Kef Castle near Adilcevaz on the northern shore of Lake Van. Particularly noteworthy are the basalt pillars with bas-reliefs uncovered in the palace section. Prof. Kemal Balkan also conducted research in the Patnos region near Lake Van. He discovered a temple belonging to King Menua and his son Argisti I at Aznavurtepe. A palace was also unearthed at Giriktepe. In 1965, British scientists Seton Lloyd and C.A. Burney conducted excavations at Kayalıdere near Varto, north of Lake Van. Especially the temple and tombs are remarkable. In 1967, Prof. Dr. Afif Erzen established the Van Region History and Archaeology Research Centre under the I.Ü.E.F..  The scientific board of this research centre began to investigate the Van Region in detail. Between 1971 and 1975, Van Castle and Toprakkale were researched again by Prof. Erzen, and rescue excavations were carried out on the hill where the treasure of Giyimli Village was looted and smuggled. Hundreds of bronze plates found here were smuggled to various museums and collections of the world. This assemblage of finds provides rich information especially shedding light on the last phase of Urartian art. In addition, rescue excavations carried out in the mounds in the Upper and Lower Euphrates basin under the name of dam excavations in Eastern Anatolia have provided new material and information on Urartian history, especially on the western border.

    The excavations in the Van Region are currently being carried out again by I.Ü.E.F. In 1983, in connection with the historical national park project of the Fortress of Van and the Old Fortress of Van, headed by Taner Tahran, excavations were started at the Fortress of Van in 1987. These excavations revealed a large palace (Yenisaray) belonging to Argisti I. Excavations were also started on the mound (Van Kalesi Höyük) just north of the castle (dating from the EBA to the Ottoman period). In addition, the excavations at Dilkaya Höyük, carried out jointly with Ege University in 1984 under the direction of Prof. Atlan Çilingiroğlu, have continued until today, and excavations at the Urartian Castle-Ayanis were also started by A. Çilingiroğlu.

URARTU RESEARCH IN NORTH-WESTERN IRAN

In the last two decades, German and British scientific delegations have carried out excavations and researches in the settlement centres and fortresses in Northwestern Iran, which show the eastern expansion of the Urartian State. C.H. Burney conducted excavations and research at Hafvalan Tepe. W. Kleiss, one of the German scientists, conducted excavations in Bastam. The Urartu city here bears the name "Rusai Urutur" (small city of Russia). Nearly a hundred fortresses and settlement centres were found in Northwestern Iran, especially during the surveys conducted by the German Archaeological Institute. These cities constitute the settlements of the eastern expansion of Urartu in the VII century BC. Meanwhile, there are also small scale excavations and researches in Northern Iraq.

MAIN PERIODS OF URARTU HISTORY

In the light of contemporary historical sources and archaeological finds, the Urartians appeared on the stage of history from the first quarter of the 13th century BC to the beginning of the 6th century BC. In terms of geographical area, they were dominant in Transcaucasia in the Karasu Basin, with Lake Van as the centre, and in the lands extending from the Malatya Region to Lake Urmia. The history of Urartu is divided into two main periods according to the structural character of the political administration.

I. Main Period: It is the period between the first quarter of the 13th century BC and the first half of the 9th century BC. (Confederations period-Urartu's Archaic period).

II. Main Period: It is the period of the Urartu Kingdom between the second half of the 9th century BC and the beginning of the 6th century BC.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE I. MAIN PERIOD

    This period is characterised as the Proto-History of Urartu. Due to its characteristics, this period is defined by us as the Archaic Age of Urartu. The sources of this period are based entirely on the Annals of Assyrian Kings as written documents. In other words, the sources are unidirectional. When these royal annals are analysed, the Uruatri and Nairi Confederations - a union of feudal principalities that dominated the lands around Lake Van in Eastern Anatolia - are seen. The ethnic origins of these societies are based on the migrations of the "Huri-Urartu" tribes and related tribes coming from Transcaucasia in the third millennium BC. At the beginning of the 13th century BC, the main factor that led to the emergence of two major political unions, Uruatri and Nairi, which would form the foundations of the future Urartu State, on the stage of history in the form of a confederation of feudal principalities was a great and powerful danger emerging on the southern borders of Eastern Anatolia. As a result of the destruction and disintegration by the Hittites of the Hurri-Mitanni State, which dominated Northern Mesopotamia once in the vicinity of Kirkuk in the second millennium BC, this political power withdrew from the stage of history. The Assyrian King Salmanasar I (1274-1245 B.C.) dealt the last blow to the remnants of this state, which was struggling to survive. The chain development of historical events starts after this. With the disappearance of this state, this buffer state between Assyria and Eastern Anatolia disappeared. These events disrupted the political balance in Northern Mesopotamia.

    This policy of Assyria, which has been trying to own the Eastern Mediterranean region and its trade throughout its history, and which has adopted the principle of exploiting the riches of Anatolian lands as a principle, begins to gain functionality with this event. The strengthening of Assyria necessitates a strong economy. The rich resources required for this were also available in Eastern Anatolia. For example, raw material resources such as iron and copper, soil products and animal herds as well as people. Heavy taxes and tributes levied on societies were a necessary and continuous source of income and exploitation for the Assyrian economy. When we analyse all the relevant Assyrian sources, it is understood that the real purpose of the military campaigns was for this purpose. In other words, economic reasons lie at the root of the campaigns against eastern Anatolia. There was no continuous and permanent Assyrian sovereignty for occupation. Thus, the independent feudal principalities in eastern Anatolia, which had no political unity until this date, were confronted with this strong danger coming from the south. As a result of this pressure, Uruatri in the first quarter of the 13th century BC and Nairi Confederations shortly afterwards took their places on the stage of history as a conscious counter reaction to Assyrian oppression.

HURRIAN-URARTU CONNECTION

    It is certain that both societies are descended from common ancestors of the same origin. The migration waves of these related societies from Transcaucasia in the early 3rd millennium BC spread to two different geographical areas. a) Eastern Anatolia. b) Northern Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, Palestine, i.e. the Hirbet-Kerak Culture, which is the equivalent of the Karas Culture in Eastern Anatolia. These finding centres in Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine are also parallel to the distribution area of the Hurri language. This culture melted and assimilated into local cultures at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. It is a fact that the Hurrians who settled in the south had an advantage over the related societies settled in the high plateaus and mountainous regions of Eastern Anatolia. This is because the geographical environment, the level of civilisation of local and neighbouring cultures and mutual interaction should be taken into consideration. The Hurri culture in the south developed in the region where the super civilisations of the Asia Minor world were born. In connection with this, there are at least two major stages.

Writing

    The Hurrians of the south, under the influence of well-established and high-level indigenous neighbouring civilisations, had a tradition of writing 1500 years earlier than their relatives in eastern Anatolia, the Urartians, as evidenced by the Hurri written documents from approximately 2300 BC and the following 2nd millennium.

Political Organisation

    The Huris in the south, especially from the middle of the 16th century BC onwards, adopted a centralised state-kingdom administration. The existence of the administrative centre "Wassugani" and king names mentioned in the sources and the effective role of the Hurri-Mitanni State in Asia Minor prove this. On the other hand, in Eastern Anatolia, in the same period, local administration, i.e. tribal and feudal principalities were still in place. In conclusion, we can say the following.

    Both societies continued their historical and cultural development in different geographical regions. For these reasons, differences have occurred in some cultural elements, especially in language. Urartu and Hur languages were close to each other, descended from common ancestors. Some Hurri texts dating back to the third millennium BC found in the southern regions show some features that continued in the Urartu language in the first millennium BC, but disappeared in the Hurri language in the second millennium BC. For this reason, the Urartian language is said to come from the prehistoric age of the Hurrians. Both languages are Asiatic. Urartu language is similar to the Ingush and Chechen languages, which are among the Caucasian languages of today. (Their ceramics are handmade. They started to use the wheel after they crossed to Anatolia).

URUATRI IN THE SOURCES OF SALMANASSAR I. (1274-1245 BC)

In his annals, the king of Assyria mentions a military expedition against the eight Uruatri countries surrounding Lake Van. (Uruatri=High Country, Mountainous Country= Assyrian texts). Following this, we encounter the name Nairi during the reign of his son Tukutti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 B.C. Tukitti-Ninurta Period). The aforementioned Nairi Principalities Union was formed in the lands west of Lake Van. Tukutti-Ninurta gives the following information in summary; 43 kings of the Nairi countries rebelled against Assyria, but they were bloodily defeated, subjugated and taken to Assyria in chains. The Nairi communities were subjected to tribute and taxation.

There is no information about Uruatri and Nairi in Assyrian sources until Tiglat-Pileser I, that is, until 1115 BC. In other words, the sources are silent on this subject. Because during this period, the migrations of the sea tribes in the west, followed by the Aegean migrations took place and the Mediterranean world was revitalised by these events. These migrations directly affected Assyria. However, its close neighbours, especially the western region, were greatly affected by these migrations. In this period of confusion, Assyrian kings undoubtedly did not want to leave their country by making an expedition to Eastern Anatolia. The migration of sea tribes is mentioned in the inscription of Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah. Aegean Migrations took place at the beginning of the XIIth century BC. These are described in detail in the inscription of the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II in Medinet-Habu.  Buckel (Memecikli) pottery from layer VII a of Troy also provides us with information. It is understood that the Uruatri and Nairi Confederations grew stronger and strengthened their sovereignty in this complex period.

URUATRI AND NAAIRI PRINCIPALITIES IN THE ANNALS OF TIGLAT-PILESER

(1115-1077 BC)

     The campaigns of this king were especially directed against Nairi, that is, to the west and southwest of Eastern Anatolia. The account in his annal is as follows.

"Assyria, my God and Master, sent me to the distant countries on the shores of the Upper Sea, which did not have a master. I led their armies through narrow roads and steep gorges that no king before me had travelled through. When we advanced slowly, I rode in my chariot, and when the going became difficult, I advanced with the help of bronze axes. The 23 kings of the Nairi countries gathered their chariots and warriors in their countries. They came before me to fight. I attacked them with all the fury of my weapons, which caused fear and terror, and I destroyed great armies like the rushing floods of Assyria. 60 kings of the Nairi and those who came to their aid I drove by the power of my spear to the edge of the Upper Sea. I took their great cities, carried off their treasures and other booty, and burned their houses to the ground. I captured all the ktal of the Nairi countries alive, but I showed them mercy, spared their lives in the presence of Samas, my god and lord, and released them from the bosom of captivity. Then I made them swear before the great gods that they would serve and obey me in the future. I took their sons, the heirs of their dynasties, as hostages to keep their promise. Then I asked them to give them 1200 horses and 2000 cattle Tribut and gave them permission to return to their country again..."

    It is clear that Tiglat-pileser I only wanted to exert pressure by plundering lands and riches, and to strengthen his authority in the Nairi Country by treating the captured lords well. In the following Assur- bel- kala period, the Uruatri and Nairi countries and the expeditions made against these countries are mentioned. Following this king, Assyrian sources are silent about Uruatri and Nairi for the second time. Because Aramaean migrations started. We have seen above that Assyria was able to stay away from the destructive effects of the sea tribes and the Aegean Migrations due to its geographical location. However, the desert tribes to the south of Assyria benefited from the confusion caused by these migrations, and Aramaean migrations of Semitic origin continued for years as a continuous leakage from the deserts to the cultural regions. Following these migrations, during the reigns of Adad Ninari II (911-891 B.C.) and Tukutti Ninurta II (890-884 B.C.), the Assyrian State once again turned towards Eastern Anatolia and made expeditions against the Uratri and Nairi Confederations and the societies there were again subjected to tribute and taxation. These confederations were freed from the pressure of Assyria due to Aramaean Migrations and became stronger.

THE FOUNDATION PHASE OF URARTU STATE

Since the Assyrian King Assur-Nasirpal II (883-859 BC), the terms Urartu and Nairi started to be used in the same sense in Assyrian sources. Especially in the History of Ancient Asia Minor, with this king, the middle of the century B.C. ). The mid-century is generally accepted as a period of intensified Assyrian military campaigns. In this period, it is noteworthy that Assyria regained its former military power as one of the superpowers providing political balance in the Asia Minor world. Assyria had gained control over the conquered territories through bloodshed, fire and force of arms. Their destruction and looting undermined the vital points of economic and cultural development. However, in response to these pressures, the resistance of the societies in Eastern Anatolia increased day by day and as a result, this time the Urartu and Nairi Confederations were united and the foundations of the Urartu State were laid. We call this period the foundation phase of the Urartu State. In other words, the Urartu-Nairi United State is in question. Detailed information about this is found in the annals of Assyrian King Assur Nashirpal II (833-859 B.C.) The first king of this united kingdom was Lapturi and is referred to as Lutipri (880-860 B.C.) in Urartian sources.

    LAPTURI-LUTIPRI (880-860 BC)

    The name of this king is mentioned in the inscriptions of the Urartian King Sarduri I in the capital city of Tuspa. In the Assyrian cuneiform inscription with the same text on the block stones of the monumental structure known as Sardur Burcu, located on the north-western end of the giant rock on which the castle of Van rises, Sarduri I refers to himself as "the son of King Lutipri the Great". King Lutipri is referred to as Lapturi in the inscriptions of his contemporary Nashirpal II of Assyria. Nashirpal II of Assyria, in his annal of the events of 882 BC, states the following.

"... during my stay in the city of Tushan ...... I received tribute from Lapturi, the son of Tubusi, and from the country of Urume in the same country, and I accepted chariots, horses, mules, silver, gold, bronze vessels, cattle, sheep and wine as tribute from the kings of the Nairi countries in the same country. I obliged the Nairi countries to carry it. ...."

    Tusha is the city of Lapturi. It was captured by the Assyrian King Assur Nasirpal II and made a centre for the northern regions of Assyria and some of the Assyrian people who were impoverished by the Aramaean Migrations were settled in this rebuilt city. (Tuhsa = Üçtepe is a large mound.) A Kurkh stele was found here and taken to the Birtish Museum. Again, according to philologists, Lapturi is a typical Hurrian name.

ARAME - ARAMU (860-840 BC)

    In the written sources of Assyrian King Salmanassar III (858-824 B.C.), another Urartian King, whose name is not mentioned in the Urartian inscriptions, is mentioned. In Salmanassar III's annal describing the events of 858 B.C., he says the following.

"At the beginning of my reign, in the first years of my reign.........I moved from Hubuskia (an important region south of Lake Van). I approached Sugunia, the city of the king of Arame of Urartu. I attacked and captured the city. I slaughtered most of his warriors. I collected the spoils. I made a column of severed heads in front of his city. I moved from Sugunia. I reached the sea of the Nairi country......."

In the events of the year of the reign of Salmanassar III (856 BC), it is stated as follows.

".....I travelled from the country of Daei ehi (around Erzurum) and reached Arzaskun, the royal city of Aramu of Urartu. When Aramu of Urartu was confronted with my powerful and terrifying weapons, he was frightened and left his city and went to Mount Ad. I slaughtered 3400 of his warriors and dyed the mountains and valleys with their blood like dyeing wool...."

In the fiftenth year of his reign, he organised his third expedition against Urartu (844 B.C.).

"....In the 15th year of my reign, I marched against the country of Nairi. I had a royal image of me placed at the source of the Tigris. I passed through the passage of the Tunibuni country and I pursued the cities of Aramu of Urartu to the banks of the Euphrates River...."

According to these concrete data, Aramu was definitely the king of the united Urartu state between 858-844 BC. However, Arame was not the father of Sarduri I, as the Sardur Burcu, the first known written document of the Urartu Kingdom, clearly shows. According to some scholars, there was a dynastic change when the kingdom passed from Arame to Sarduri I. The tribes loyal to Sarduri I probably took Aramu's tribes under their sovereignty and ensured that Sarduri I came to power. King Aramu succeeded in establishing a new organisation which was governed by a kingdom instead of a confederation. He strengthened first Sugunia and then Arzaskun and made these cities the administrative centres of the Urartu-Nairi Unified State, bringing the territory of the core country surrounding Lake Van under his control with these powerful royal cities. The destruction and looting of both capitals by Salmanassar III and the expeditions of this king against Urartu, the overcoming of mountains, the taking of booty and artefacts are vividly depicted in the bronze reliefs of the famous Balabat Gate, which is now exhibited in the British Museum. (This is the first pictorial document representing Urartu). However, despite taking such a measure, that is, despite the establishment of Arzaskun in a more remote region, it could not save itself from the destruction of Assyria.

SARDURI I (840-825 BC)

    The powerful king Sarduri I, whose name appears as Seduri in the annals of Salmanassar III, is considered to be the true founder of the Urartu State, that is, the kingdom. In the 27th year of the reign of Salmanassar III, that is, in the events of 832 BC, he says exactly the following about it.

"......I gathered my chariots and riders together. I sent Turtan (Commander-in-Chief) against Daian-Assyrian Urartu. Seduri of Urartu learnt about it. Relying on the strength of his troops, he turned against me and was defeated in battle...."

    However, it is understood that this was not a large-scale defeat. In the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions, which are repeated six times on the block stones of a monumental structure called Sardur Burcu or Mother Burç, which is now called Sardur Burcu or Mother Burç, at the northwest end of the cliff on which the capital city Tushpa, that is, the magnificent Van Castle, which is understood to have been founded by Sarduri I, he identifies himself as the king of Urartu and says exactly the following.

".....The inscription of Sarduri, the son of the great King Lutupri, the mighty king, the king of the universe, the king of the land of Nairi, the king without equal, the terrifying shepherd who is not afraid of war, the king who destroys those who do not submit to him; I am Sarduri, the son of Lutupri, the king of kings, the king of kings, who accepts taxes from all kings. Sarduri, son of Lutupri, says: "I brought these stone blocks from the city of Alniunu, I built this rampart (wall)...."

G.A. MELİKİSHVİLİ, Urartskie Klinoobrazyne Nadpisi,  Moskova, 1960.

M.N. VAN LOON, Urartian Art: Its Distinctive Traits in the Light of new Ezcavations.Lerden,                 1966, İstanbul

B.B. PİOTROVSKİİ, Urartu : The Kingdom Of Van and Its Art. London, 1967

C.A. BURNEY, The Peoples of the Hills, Ancient Ararat and Caucasus London, 1971.

PHRYGIAN GODDESS KYBELE

    When we talk about the countless blessings that nature offers to mankind, we say "what Mother Nature has given us". We talk about the damages caused to "mother nature" by the fossil fuels we use and the many chemicals we consume. But how many of us are aware that the concept of "Mother Nature" or "Mother Nature" is associated with Cybele, the Phrygian goddess of Ancient Anatolia?

    In ancient times, the region of Anatolia known as Phrygia was bordered by Mysia, Lydia and Caria to the west, Galatia and Lyakonia to the east, Bithynia to the north, Pisidia and Lycia to the south.  Phrygia was not only the cradle of the Phrygian civilisation, but also influential in the field of religion by presenting the belief in Cybele to its neighbours of that era and to Greece and Rome in later periods. The goddesses known as Kybebe in Lydia, Isis in Egypt, Artemis in Ephesus, Rhea in Crete, Demeter in Greece and Magna Mater in Rome are merely the reflections of Phrygian Kybele under different names.

    As a goddess of nature, Cybele is responsible for the order in nature. But primarily she symbolises the fertility of the soil. Being the protector of agriculture also makes it possible to see her as the founder of social progress, civilisation and cities. In the depictions of the goddess, the tower figures on the diadem (crown) on her head emphasise this characteristic of her.

    The mother goddess of Phrygia was worshipped especially in the mountains. One of her names, Dindyme, is related to the worship of the goddess on the Dindymos mountain in the region. There are three mountains with this name in Ancient Anatolia, all of which are in the vicinity of the Phrygian region. One of them is the Günyüzü mountain around the city of Pessinus (Ballıhisar) on the Sangarios (Sakarya) river, which was the centre of the cult of Cybele. The first temple, which also hosted a meteorite, the first depiction of the goddess, was also here.

    Agdistis, another name of the goddess, was derived from a rock known as Agdus, which was also located on Mount Dindymos and believed to be sacred.  Her name is also mentioned as Agdistis in the myth originating from Pessinus.

Cybele Myth

    According to the legend; God Zeus had a dream and poured his seeds on a rock and a hermaphrodite being emerged from it. The gods cut off the male organ of this being named Agdistis. When the limb fell to the ground, an almond tree grew out of it. Nana, the daughter of the river Sangarios, plucked an almond from the tree and hid it in her chest. She became pregnant from this fruit and a boy named Attis was born. When he became a beautiful young man, Agdistis fell in love with this young man. But he decided to marry the daughter of the king of Pessinus. Agdistis, who appeared on the wedding day, caused the young man to go mad, castrate himself and die. The king also castrated himself.

    In another version of the story; Zeus spills his seeds on the stone known as Agdus, a manifestation of the goddess Cybele. Agdistis is born. When the god Dionysus gets him drunk, he passes out and cuts off his male organ. An almond tree grows from his limb. Nana, the daughter of the river Sangarios, hides an almond from this tree in her breast and becomes pregnant. Attis is born. When he comes of age, both Cybele and Agdistis fall in love with him. Midas, the king of Phrygia, wants to marry this young man to his daughter. Agdistis causes the young man to lose his mind and he castrates himself under a pine tree and dies. Cybele buries him. Violets grow at the bottom of the pine tree watered with his blood. Midas' daughter also commits suicide. Goddess buries her too. An almond tree grows on her grave along with violets. When Agdistis asks Zeus to keep Attis' body intact, the god only allows his hair to grow and one of his fingers to keep moving. Agdistis takes the body of her beloved to Pessinus and buries it and organises a festival in his memory. It is also rumoured that Attis was killed by a wild boar, and it is associated with this rumour that especially the people of Pessinus refrain from eating pork.

    Another point to be emphasised about the myth of Cybele-Attis, which symbolically describes the fertility of the soil with the elements it contains, is that the story is similar to the myths of Ishtar-Tammuz in Babylonian mythology and Astarte-Adonis in Syrian mythology.

Cybele Temple and Cybele Festivals

    The cult centre in Pessinus, where the ceremonies for the Phrygian goddess were held, was headed by two high priests. These clergymen, called Attis and Megabyzos, who castrated themselves when they entered the service of the goddess, were also the administrators of the cult centre.The ceremonies in honour of the goddess were held in spring, when the earth awakened and the shoots began to sprout, and lasted five days. On the first day of the celebrations, Attis was mourned. The trunk of a pine tree, considered sacred, was wrapped with pieces of woollen cloth and paraded through the streets. On the second day, other priests of Cybele, known as Gallos, would dance ecstatically to the accompaniment of musical instruments such as drums, tambourines and cymbals. Just like the "Korybants" in the myth; who wandered around the countryside with torches in their hands in pursuit of the goddess and danced wildly to the music. The third day was reserved for bloody ceremonies. Participants in the ritual cut their bodies and shed blood. On the fourth day, Attis' resurrection was celebrated with joyful dances, and the last day was spent in rest.

    The worship of Cybele spread throughout the Aegean and Mediterranean by the travelling priests of Phrygia. Kybele's qualities are also expressed in the personalities and myths of the goddesses Rhea, Artemis and Demeter, who have a considerable importance in the belief system of continental Greece. The greatest similarity is with Demeter. She too is primarily an earth goddess. She is the protector of wheat and the assurance of the product.

    The goddess known as Magna Mater (Great Mother) in Rome is Kybele herself. The introduction of her cult to Rome took place in 205-204 BC during the war with Carthage. There is a meteorite rain in the city. The frightened people consulted the Sibylla books, which were kept in the temple of Jupiter and contained the prophecies of the priestess of the god Apollo. Accordingly, if Phrygia's Cybele temple is brought to the city, the Carthaginian army will be expelled from Italy. A group of envoys travelled to Anatolia and received from King Attalos the black stone, the first manifestation of the goddess in Pessinus. The stone is placed in the temple of Victory on the Palatine hill of the city of Rome. After winning the war (202 BC), a temple for the goddess was built here. In honour of the goddess, who was named Magna Mater, a festival called Megalensia is held every year between 4-9 April.

    It is interesting to note that the celebrations in Rome were also led by a priest of Cybele from Phrygia. A Phrygian priestess and eunuch priests (Galloi) would pass through the city in a procession during the celebrations. Citizens were forbidden to participate in the celebrations. Only a group of prominent Roman aristocrats were allowed to join in the festivities.   

    The story of the Phrygian goddess in Rome takes a different turn in the early period of the empire, and the belief in Cybele-Attis leads to the birth of another festival. The ceremonies; in which a group of clergymen (quindecimviri) as well as all women and men could participate; were held between 15-27 March, also in spring. On the first day; cane-carrying priests called "kanofori" carried cut tree canes to the temple of the goddess. Seven days later, the "dendrofi" or tree-bearer priests brought a pine tree cut from the forest. The trunk of the tree was wrapped with ribbons like a corpse and a depiction of Attis was tied in the centre. The tree represented the dead god. On 24 March, "dies sanguinis" or blood day, eunuch priests (galloi) and candidates for initiation began a wild dance to the accompaniment of flutes, cymbals and tambourines, whipped their backs until they bled, and cut their arms with knives. At the height of the frenzy, some candidates cut off their male organs and offered them to the goddess. The lamentations of death that filled the night between 24 March and 25 March were replaced the next morning by a sudden burst of joy at the news of the god's resurrection. That day was "hilaria", the day of joy. After a day's rest, on 27 March, a great procession was held to the river, where the statue of Cybele was immersed in water (lavatio). From the 2nd century AD, candidates for puberty were purified with the blood of a bull or ram (taurobolium or criobolium). They also offered this animal to the goddess instead of their own male organs.

    The fact that these sacrificial ceremonies were organised at all seasons in the imperial age, not only for individual maturation but also for the well-being of the monarchy, points to the prestige of the Phrygian mother goddess in Rome.

    Apuleius, the famous Roman poet, orator and philosopher, in his novel "Transfigurations" or "Asinus Aureus", introduces the Phrygian from his own mouth: "I, the mother of nature, the lord of all elements, the firstborn of the ages, the greatest of the gods, the queen of the dead, the guide of the celestial beings, the one who gathers all the forms of gods and goddesses into one... With a nod of my head, I rule all the bright peaks of the sky, the healthy winds of the sea and the sorrowful silence of the underworld. My divinity is unique. The whole world worships me in my various forms. With different ceremonies and under various names. The Phrygians, the first lineage of mankind, call me the mother of the gods from Pessinus. The earth-born people of Attica call me Minerva of Kekrops. Venus of Paphos, say the Kyprosians beaten by the seas. The Cretans, who never part with their alms, call me Diktynna Diana. The Sicilians, who speak three languages, call me Proserpina of the Styx. The ancient people of Eleusis know me as Ceres of Attica. Some call me Juno, some Bellona. Some call me Hecate, some Rhamnusia... Egyptians, who adhere to their ancient beliefs, call me the Goddess Isis..."

Is there a better answer to the question "Who is the Phrygian goddess?"

Bibliography

Apuleius, Başkalaşımlar, Kabalcı Yayınları, çev: Çiğdem Dürüşken, İstanbul, 2006.

Eliade, Mircea, Dinsel İnançlar ve Düşünceler Tarihi, II. cilt, Kabalcı Yayınları, çev: Ali Berktay, İstanbul, 2003.

Erhat, Azra, Mitoloji Sözlüğü, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, 1984.

Frazer, James G, Altın Dal-Din ve Folklorun Kökenleri, I.cilt, Payel Yayınları, çev: Mehmet H. Doğan, İstanbul, 2004.

Graves, Robert, New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, The Hamlyn Publishing, London, 1959.

Seyffert, Oscar, A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, George Allen&Unwin Ltd., London, 1957.

Speake, Graham, Dictionary of Ancient History, Penguin Books, London, 1994.