Damascus: A Timeless Journey Through History and Legends

 

Welcome to Damascus, one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities and a treasure trove of history, culture, and mythology. Nestled in the fertile oasis formed by the Barada River, this ancient city has been a crossroads of civilizations, a melting pot of cultures, and a beacon of trade and learning for millennia.

In this blog, we’ll embark on a journey through Damascus’s legendary origins, its rich historical tapestry, and its must-visit attractions. Whether you’re a history enthusiast, a culture explorer, or simply a curious traveler, Damascus promises an unforgettable experience.

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The Legendary Origins of Damascus

The origins of Damascus are steeped in myth and legend. Some believe the city’s history traces back to the descendants of Adam and Eve, while others claim it was one of the first places Noah and his family settled after the Great Flood.

Etymologically, Damascus derives from “Dimashqu,” which some interpret as “the well-watered land.” Another legend tells of the goddess Astarte, who blessed the city with fertility and prosperity, earning it the moniker “the land of light.”

Walking through the city today, one cannot help but feel the echoes of these ancient tales in its bustling streets and serene landscapes.

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A Walk Through History: From Ancient Times to Ottoman Glory

Damascus’s historical journey began around 3,000 BCE and saw it become a center for many great civilizations, including the Arameans, Romans, Byzantines, and Muslims.

In 636 CE, the city was incorporated into the Islamic caliphate after the decisive Battle of Yarmouk. It later flourished under the Umayyad Caliphate, becoming their grand capital. The city saw another golden age during the Ottoman period, when it became a vital hub for trade and pilgrimage.

Each layer of Damascus’s history adds a new chapter to its fascinating story, reflected in its architecture, culture, and traditions.

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Top 10 Must-Visit Attractions in Damascus

1. Umayyad Mosque

One of the world’s most iconic mosques, the Umayyad Mosque is a masterpiece of Islamic architecture. Its golden mosaics and peaceful courtyards are a testament to the grandeur of the Umayyad era. Don’t miss the shrine of John the Baptist (Prophet Yahya), located within the mosque.

2. Old City of Damascus

A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Old City is a labyrinth of cobblestone streets, ancient walls, and historical landmarks. Enter through Bab Sharqi (East Gate) or Bab al-Jabiya (West Gate) and immerse yourself in centuries of history.

3. Al-Hamidiyah Souq

This bustling bazaar is the heart of Damascus’s commercial life. Shop for spices, handwoven fabrics, traditional sweets, and antiques. The vibrant atmosphere of this Ottoman-era market is an experience in itself.

4. Azem Palace

A beautifully preserved 18th-century Ottoman palace, Azem Palace showcases traditional Damascene architecture with its intricate stonework and lush courtyards. The palace is now a museum dedicated to Syrian arts and traditions.

5. Salihiyah and Suleymaniye Mosque

Built by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the Suleymaniye Mosque is a serene and understated architectural gem. The nearby Salihiyah district offers charming streets and historical homes.

6. Barada River and Gardens

The Barada River flows through Damascus like a lifeline, nurturing the lush gardens and orchards surrounding the city. Stroll along the riverbanks or relax in one of the traditional tea houses nearby.

7. Tekkiye Suleymaniye Complex

Another Ottoman-era marvel, this complex served as a mosque, inn, and public kitchen. Today, it hosts exhibitions of Syrian crafts and art.

8. National Museum of Damascus

Dive into Syria’s rich history at this museum, which houses artifacts from the ancient cities of Mari, Ebla, and Ugarit. The museum offers a fascinating glimpse into the region’s archaeological and cultural heritage.

9. Sayyidah Zaynab Shrine

A significant pilgrimage site, this shrine is dedicated to Sayyidah Zaynab, a revered figure in Islamic history. The site’s ornate architecture and spiritual ambiance attract visitors from all over the world.

10. Mount Qasioun

For breathtaking views of Damascus, head to Mount Qasioun. As the sun sets, the city lights create a magical panorama, making this spot a must-visit for photographers and romantics alike.

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Practical Travel Tips for Damascus

• Taste the Local Cuisine: Indulge in Damascus’s culinary delights, from flavorful kebabs to creamy muhallebi desserts.
• Shop for Souvenirs: Take home traditional Damascus silk, handmade jewelry, or fragrant spices.
• Explore with a Guide: A local guide can provide deeper insights into the city’s history and hidden gems.

  Conclusion: Discover the Soul of Damascus

  Damascus is more than a city; it’s a living museum where history, culture, and mythology converge. From its legendary origins to its vibrant modern life, Damascus offers a journey like no other.

  So, pack your bags, prepare your senses, and let Damascus unfold its timeless magic. 🌟

Kanos Saltworks: Uncovering the Ancient Secrets of Salt Production

Salt has been an essential resource throughout human history, influencing economies, cultures, and even languages. The ancient Kanos Saltworks, located near modern-day Köyceğiz, Turkey, provide a fascinating glimpse into early salt production techniques and their impact on society. This blog dives into the historical, archaeological, and cultural significance of Kanos Saltworks, based on extensive research and findings.

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The Historical Importance of Salt

Salt's value transcends its culinary uses, playing a crucial role in preservation, medicine, and rituals. In ancient Rome, salt was so vital that it became a form of currency, with the term “salary” derived from the Latin word salarium, reflecting payments made to soldiers.

Key facts about salt's historical importance:

• Used in religious ceremonies like Roman Vestal rituals.
• A cornerstone of ancient trade routes, such as the Via Salaria (Salt Road).
• A critical resource in economic systems, with tightly controlled production and distribution.

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Kanos Saltworks: A Unique Archaeological Site

Nestled near a lagoon in Köyceğiz, Kanos Saltworks represents one of Anatolia's earliest identified sea salt production sites. Excavations have revealed unique dome-shaped salt pans, unlike the rectangular pans found in most modern saltworks.

Key Discoveries

1. Specialized Salt Production:

   • Evidence suggests that salt from Kanos had unique chemical properties, likely enhancing its value in ancient trade networks.
   • The salt was believed to have medicinal qualities, reflecting its specialized production methods.

2. Environmental Engineering:

   • The lagoon's strategic location and the surrounding Mediterranean climate facilitated natural evaporation and sedimentation processes.
   • Canals were designed to filter water and control sediment, ensuring high-quality salt production.

3. Dating the Site:

   • Sediment studies date salt production in the region back to at least the first century BCE, highlighting the longevity of the site.

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Comparative Insights: Global Saltworks

The findings from Kanos have been compared with other historical saltworks, such as those in Vigo, Spain, and England. While Vigo's salt pans are rectangular and integrated into settlements, Kanos’s dome-shaped pans and lagoon-based operation stand out as highly innovative for their time.

Labor and Techniques

• Salt harvesting at Kanos required significant manual effort, often involving enslaved workers.
• The use of canals to filter and concentrate saltwater demonstrates advanced engineering knowledge.

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Cultural Legacy of Salt

Salt’s influence extends beyond economics into cultural practices and rituals. For example:

• It played a pivotal role in food preservation, especially for trade routes transporting salted fish from the Nile River to distant regions.
• Salt's association with purity made it a staple in religious and spiritual ceremonies across civilizations.

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Modern Implications

Today, the legacy of ancient saltworks like Kanos endures in both industrial practices and cultural heritage. Efforts to preserve these sites highlight their historical importance, offering valuable lessons for sustainable resource management.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Why is Kanos Saltworks significant?

Kanos Saltworks is a prime example of early sea salt production, showcasing advanced engineering and its vital role in ancient trade and culture.

How did ancient societies use salt?

Salt was crucial for preserving food, conducting rituals, and facilitating trade. Its value was so high that it was often used as currency.

What can we learn from Kanos today?

The sustainable practices employed in Kanos Saltworks offer insights into resource management and environmental adaptation.

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Final Thoughts

The Kanos Saltworks not only shed light on ancient engineering and economic systems but also reveal the cultural and societal impact of salt. Preserving these sites is crucial for understanding humanity's shared history and innovations.

For more insights into ancient civilizations and archaeological discoveries, stay tuned to our blog!

Reference: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GILK4jmbDKA   Kaunos Tuzlası. Roma Dönemi'nde Solar Evaporasyon ile Deniz Tuzu Üretimi ve Ekonomik Perspektifler

Boubon Ancient City

 

A Journey Through Time: Discover Boubon Ancient City

Looking for a hidden gem where history and nature come together? Head to the charming village of İbecik in Gölhisar, nestled in the Burdur region of Turkey. Boubon Ancient City, perched on the Dikmen Hill, is just 2.5 km south of the village and offers an unforgettable experience for history buffs and nature enthusiasts alike. Located 135 km from Burdur and 111 km from Fethiye, this lesser-known archaeological site is a must-visit for those seeking a unique adventure.

Unearthing Boubon’s Treasures

As you approach Boubon, you’ll be greeted by the lush greenery of Pınar oak shrubs, which blanket the surrounding landscape. Hidden within this verdant wilderness lies a city that once thrived in the art of bronze sculpting. Boubon is famous for its bronze statues, many of which were crafted in its ancient workshops. The magnificent statue of Apollo, now exhibited in the Burdur Museum, is a testament to the city’s artistic excellence during the 2nd century AD.

Unfortunately, Boubon has a troubled history. In the 1960s, the site was heavily looted, with many priceless bronze artifacts smuggled abroad. Thankfully, some of these treasures were recovered and preserved in local museums, providing a glimpse into the city’s glorious past.

Today, as you explore the ruins, you’ll encounter remnants of structures such as the Agora, Theater, Water Cistern, Fountains, and Temples. These ruins, though weathered by time, hint at the grandeur of Boubon as a bustling urban center in antiquity.

Boubon’s Historical Significance

Boubon's story is deeply intertwined with the history of the Lycian region. Around 190 BC, it allied with Araxa during regional conflicts and later became part of the Tetrapolis, a union of four cities: Oenoanda, Balbura, Kibyra, and Boubon. This union eventually merged with Lycia. By the 1st century AD, Boubon had transitioned into a prosperous Roman city.

Why Visit Boubon Today?

Visiting Boubon Ancient City is not just about delving into history; it’s also about immersing yourself in the serene beauty of nature. A hike up Dikmen Hill rewards you with breathtaking views and the chance to wander through ancient ruins that whisper stories of a bygone era. Whether you're an avid historian, an archaeology enthusiast, or a curious traveler, Boubon offers a captivating blend of discovery and tranquility.

Tips for Your Trip

• Best Time to Visit: Spring and autumn offer pleasant weather for exploring the ruins.
• What to Bring: Comfortable hiking shoes, water, and a camera to capture the scenic views and ancient relics.
• Nearby Attractions: Combine your visit with a trip to Burdur Museum to see the Apollo statue and other Boubon artifacts.

How to Get There

Boubon is easily accessible from Burdur and Fethiye by car. Once you reach İbecik village, a short trek will take you to the ancient city’s entrance.

THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT CITY “SIDE”

 

Discover Side: A Timeless Treasure of the Mediterranean

Located along Turkey's stunning Mediterranean coast, Side is a jewel of history and nature, offering a rich tapestry of ancient stories and breathtaking views. From its mysterious origins to its rise as a bustling metropolis and eventual rediscovery, Side’s journey through time is nothing short of extraordinary. Let’s embark on an in-depth exploration of this timeless city.

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The Enigmatic Beginnings of Side

The ancient city of Side traces its roots back to the 14th or 13th century BCE, during a time when Greek settlers ventured eastward to the Mediterranean’s shores. They called this region Pamphylia, meaning “Land of All Tribes,” a name that reflects its cultural diversity. However, archaeological evidence suggests that Side was inhabited long before Greek settlers arrived, with ties to Bronze Age Anatolian civilizations.

The name “Side” is derived from the Anatolian word for pomegranate, symbolizing prosperity and fertility. Ancient records suggest the city may have been founded as early as 1405 BCE, but historians debate its exact origins. Some even link Side to the Hittite Empire, which referred to this region as the Hulaia River Country.

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Side’s Many Faces: Empires and Influences

Over the centuries, Side became a crossroads for numerous empires, each leaving an indelible mark on the city:

• The Lydians and Persians (6th Century BCE): Side was first controlled by the Lydian Kingdom and later fell under Persian rule. However, it retained some autonomy, even minting its own coins.
• Alexander the Great (4th Century BCE): In 334 BCE, Side welcomed Alexander the Great without resistance, sparing itself destruction. Under his rule, the city became a center for commerce and coin production.
• Hellenistic Kingdoms: After Alexander’s death, his empire fragmented. Side became part of the power struggles between rival Hellenistic kingdoms but thrived as a semi-independent trading city.
• The Roman Empire (2nd Century BCE - 4th Century CE): Side reached its zenith under Roman rule. The city became a cultural and economic hub, adorned with grand monuments like its famous theater, harbor, and temples. Known as a Metropolis, it flourished in trade and urban development.

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Decline and Transformation

Despite its golden age, Side’s fortunes began to wane during the Byzantine period. Frequent attacks by Arab and Persian forces in the 7th century destabilized the region. Over time, the city’s population dwindled, retreating behind fortified walls to create a smaller enclave, or castron.

By the 10th century, Side was largely abandoned after a devastating fire and repeated invasions. Most of its residents migrated to nearby Antalya. Notably, Arab geographer Idrisi, writing in the 12th century, described Side as a ruin with only a handful of residents remaining.

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A Phoenix Rises: The 19th-Century Revival

Side remained dormant for centuries until the late 19th century. In the 1890s, Muslim families fleeing political turmoil in Crete were resettled in the area under orders from Ottoman Sultan Abdulhamid II. These immigrants established a small village, named Selimiye, amid the ruins of Side.

For decades, Selimiye was a self-sufficient community, relying on farming, fishing, and craftsmanship for survival. Residents lived simply, trading goods through barter instead of money.

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Side Today: Where History Meets Modern Charm

Side has undergone a remarkable transformation over the past century. Its rich history and well-preserved ruins have made it a popular destination for tourists worldwide. Highlights include:

• The Ancient Theater: One of the largest and best-preserved Roman theaters in Asia Minor.
• The Temple of Apollo and Athena: Overlooking the sea, these iconic ruins are a favorite spot for sunset photos.

  

  
  
• The Harbor and Agora: Once bustling with traders, these areas now invite visitors to imagine the vibrant life of ancient Side.

Side also offers pristine beaches, luxurious accommodations, and vibrant local markets. It’s a place where the past and present coexist harmoniously, making it an unmissable destination.

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Why Visit Side?

Whether you’re a history enthusiast, a beach lover, or someone seeking a blend of culture and relaxation, Side has something for everyone. Walk among ancient ruins, soak up the Mediterranean sun, and savor traditional Turkish cuisine in a setting that feels timeless.

 

Discovering Göbeklitepe: How to Get There and Its Historical Significance

Introduction to Göbeklitepe

Göbeklitepe, located in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, is considered one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of the 21st century. This ancient site has reshaped historical perspectives, providing invaluable insights into early human civilisation.

Situated approximately 15 kilometers northeast of the city of Şanlıurfa, atop a mountain ridge, Göbeklitepe dates back to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, around 9600-8200 BCE. It is believed to be the world’s oldest known temple complex, with structures predating the pyramids of Egypt by thousands of years.

Key Features of Göbeklitepe:

• Massive T-Shaped Pillars: The site is characterised by its large, T-shaped limestone pillars, some of which reach heights of up to 6 meters. These pillars are arranged in circular and oval formations and are intricately decorated with carvings of animals, abstract symbols, and humanoid figures.

• Enclosures: Göbeklitepe comprises multiple stone enclosures, many of which have been excavated, while others remain buried. Each enclosure contains several pillars, set in a circular or oval pattern, with two larger central pillars facing each other.

• Archaeological Stratigraphy: The site consists of several layers, representing different phases of construction and usage. The deepest layers contain the earliest structures, with subsequent layers indicating ongoing activity and modifications over millennia.

• Symbolism and Artistry: The carvings and reliefs on the pillars showcase a high degree of artistic skill and symbolic meaning. Depictions of animals such as lions, snakes, boars, and birds are common, suggesting various ritualistic or cultural significances.

Discoveries and Excavations

The discovery of Göbeklitepe is attributed to Klaus Schmidt, a German archaeologist, who began excavations in the mid-1990s. Prior to Schmidt’s research, the site was mistakenly thought to be a medieval cemetery. However, Schmidt’s work revealed its true ancient and monumental nature, revolutionising the understanding of prehistoric societies.

Historical Context

Göbeklitepe challenges traditional views on the development of civilisation. It suggests that complex religious practices and social structures existed prior to the advent of agriculture and settled communities. This has led scholars to re-evaluate the relationship between hunter-gatherer societies and the rise of organised religion.

Further studies and digs continue at Göbeklitepe, promising to uncover more secrets about humanity’s distant past. The site’s importance is recognised by its inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage List, underscoring its universal value to human history.

Planning a Visit

For those interested in exploring this archaeological wonder, Göbeklitepe is accessible from Şanlıurfa. The site is open to tourists year-round, offering a unique glimpse into a civilisation that flourished over 11,000 years ago. Visitors can view the impressive structures and gain a deeper appreciation of early human innovation.

Unveiling the Mysteries: A Brief History of Göbeklitepe

Göbeklitepe, located in southeastern Turkey, is one of the most significant archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. Often referred to as the “world’s first temple,” this site has revolutionised our understanding of early human societies. Here is a brief history of Göbeklitepe:

Discovery and Excavation

• Initial Discovery: Göbeklitepe was first identified by a Kurdish shepherd in 1963, but it wasn’t until 1994 that German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt fully realised its significance.
• Excavation: Under Schmidt’s guidance, excavation and analysis began, revealing multiple megalithic structures dating back to the 10th millennium BCE.

Architectural Marvels

• T-shaped pillars: The site is renowned for its large T-shaped limestone pillars, some of which stand up to 20 feet tall and weigh up to 20 tonnes.
• Circular Enclosures: These pillars are arranged in circular enclosures, suggesting a possible ritualistic or communal function.
• Carvings and Reliefs: The pillars are adorned with intricate carvings, including depictions of animals such as snakes, foxes, and wild boars. These carvings provide insight into the symbolic practices of the site’s builders.

Significance

• Age: At approximately 12,000 years old, Göbeklitepe predates Stonehenge by over 6,000 years and the Pyramids of Giza by about 7,000 years.
• Societal Impact: The complexity of the site indicates a high level of social organisation, challenging long-held assumptions about hunter-gatherer societies. It suggests that religious and complex social rituals may have been integral to human communities even before the advent of agriculture.

Theories and Interpretations

• Purpose: Scholars debate the exact purpose of Göbeklitepe. While some view it as a religious temple, others propose it served as a communal gathering space.
• Construction Techniques: The construction of such monumental structures without modern tools remains a puzzle. This has led to numerous theories regarding the workforce and methods employed.
• Cultural Development: The artifacts and constructions at Göbeklitepe provide critical data on the cultural and ideological developments of early humans.

Ongoing Research

• Current Excavations: Archaeological work continues, with many areas yet to be fully explored. Each new discovery adds to the understanding of this enigmatic site.
• Interdisciplinary Studies: Research incorporates various disciplines, including anthropology, archaeoastronomy, and palaeoenvironmental studies, to construct a more comprehensive picture.

The history of Göbeklitepe underscores its importance in the narrative of human civilisation, marking it not only as an archaeological treasure but also a profound testament to early human ingenuity and social organisation.

Significance of Göbeklitepe in Human History

Göbeklitepe, located in southeastern Turkey, represents a monumental archaeological site that has reshaped the understanding of early human civilisation. Unearthed in the mid-1990s, the site dates back approximately 12,000 years, predating Stonehenge and the Great Pyramids of Egypt by several millennia.

Transformative Discoveries

Several groundbreaking discoveries have emerged from the excavation of Göbeklitepe:

• Earliest Known Temple Complex: Göbeklitepe is widely regarded as the world’s oldest known temple complex. Unlike subsequent temples, it was erected long before the advent of agriculture and settled civilisation, suggesting that this monumental architecture was the work of hunter-gatherers.

• Advanced Engineering: The megalithic structures at Göbeklitepe feature intricately carved limestone pillars, some towering over 5 metres tall and weighing up to 10 tonnes. These pillars are adorned with detailed depictions of animals, abstract symbols, and human-like figures, demonstrating sophisticated artistic and engineering abilities.

• Social and Religious Implications: The complexity and scale of Göbeklitepe indicate a high level of social organisation. The construction of such a site would have required coordinated efforts from a substantial workforce, highlighting the existence of complex societal structures at this time.

Redefining Historical Timelines

Göbeklitepe challenges previous timelines associated with the dawn of civilisation:

1. Origins of Religion: The discovery suggests that organised religion may have played a crucial role in the formation of early societies. The congregational nature of Göbeklitepe implies that religious gatherings could have been a driving force behind the establishment of settled communities.

2. Agricultural Revolution: The site pre-dates the advent of farming, prompting scholars to reconsider the relationship between sedentary life and agriculture. The construction of Göbeklitepe implies that the move towards permanent settlements might have been motivated by spiritual or communal needs rather than agricultural necessity.

3. Technological Development: The sophisticated craftsmanship of Göbeklitepe’s structures necessitates a re-evaluation of technological capabilities during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. This suggests a more advanced level of tool use and construction techniques than previously assumed.

   Planning Your Visit: Best Time to Go

Choosing the best time to visit Göbeklitepe can greatly enhance the overall experience. The region, located in southeastern Turkey, experiences a diverse climate, which varies throughout the year. Knowing when to visit can make a significant difference in the level of comfort and enjoyment during the trip.

Spring (March to May)

• The temperatures during spring are mild and pleasant, typically ranging from 10°C to 20°C.
• This season is ideal for exploring the archaeological site without enduring the extreme heat of summer.
• The lush greenery and blooming flowers add to the scenic beauty, making the experience more visually appealing.

Summer (June to August)

• Summer in Göbeklitepe can be quite hot, with temperatures often exceeding 30°C.
• Visiting during early mornings or late afternoons can help avoid the peak heat of midday.
• Hydration and sun protection are crucial during this time of year.

Autumn (September to November)

• Autumn presents similar advantages to spring, with comfortable temperatures ranging from 15°C to 25°C.
• The weather is generally stable, and the landscape features autumnal hues that enhance the site’s visual allure.
• This period is less crowded compared to summer, providing a more serene environment for exploration.

Winter (December to February)

• Winter months can be quite cold, and temperatures can drop to around 5°C.
• Although less crowded, the chillier weather may not be as comfortable for outdoor exploration.
• Rainfall is more common during winter, which could affect the experience.

Key Considerations:

• Crowds: Off-peak seasons such as spring and autumn tend to have fewer tourists, offering a more intimate and peaceful visit.
• Festivals and Events: Checking the local calendar for any cultural events or festivals can enrich the visit.
• Accommodation and Services: Ensure availability and pricing of accommodation and local services, which may fluctuate with the seasons.

By carefully selecting the time of year for a visit to Göbeklitepe, one can optimise the balance of comfort, weather conditions, and overall experience, ensuring a memorable and informative exploration of this extraordinary archaeological site.

How to Reach Göbeklitepe: Travel Tips and Options

Located in southeastern Turkey, Göbeklitepe is a fascinating archaeological site near the city of Şanlıurfa. Travellers seeking to explore this ancient wonder have several options and tips to consider for a smooth journey.

Reaching Şanlıurfa

One must first reach Şanlıurfa to visit Göbeklitepe. Here are some potential travel methods:

• By Air:

  • The primary airport serving Şanlıurfa is the Şanlıurfa GAP Airport (GNY).
  • Several domestic flights operate daily from major Turkish cities, such as Istanbul and Ankara.
  • International travellers may need to catch connecting flights through these major hubs.

• By Bus:

  • Long-distance buses run regularly to Şanlıurfa from numerous cities across Turkey.
  • The bus journey can be lengthy; however, it offers a cost-effective option.
  • Major bus operators provide services such as overnight trips, comfortable seating, and scheduled stops.

• By Car:

  • Renting a car allows for flexibility, enabling exploration of surrounding areas at a preferred pace.
  • Driving from nearby cities such as Gaziantep or Diyarbakir is feasible.
  • The road conditions are generally good, but checking maps and traffic updates beforehand is advisable.

From Şanlıurfa to Göbeklitepe

Once in Şanlıurfa, reaching Göbeklitepe is straightforward. The site is approximately 15 km northeast of the city centre. Options to consider:

• Guided Tours:

  • Many local operators organise day trips to Göbeklitepe, combining transportation, guided tours, and sometimes meals.
  • These tours provide historical context and insightful commentary.

• Public Transport:

  • Public buses or minibuses (dolmuş) run from Şanlıurfa to key points nearby Göbeklitepe.
  • Clarify the schedules beforehand, as services may not be frequent.

• Taxi or Ride Services:

  • Hiring a taxi for a round trip or one-way journey is convenient.
  • Agree on the fare in advance, as many taxi drivers may not use meters for out-of-town trips.

Travel Tips

• Timing the Visit:

  • Göbeklitepe opens year-round, but spring and autumn offer more temperate weather conditions.
  • Early morning or late afternoon visits help to avoid crowds and the midday sun.

• What to Bring:

  • Sunscreen, hats, and water are essential for protection against the sun.
  • Comfortable walking shoes are crucial due to uneven terrain and potential distances to cover.

• Additional Considerations:

  • Checking local holidays and events can help avoid disruptions.
  • Respecting the archaeological site’s rules and preserving its integrity is paramount.

Travellers planning to visit Göbeklitepe can benefit significantly by considering these travel tips and options, ensuring an enriching and hassle-free experience.

Guided Tours vs. Self-Exploration: Which is Better?

When deciding how to explore Göbeklitepe, visitors often face the choice between guided tours and self-exploration. These two modes offer distinct experiences, each with its advantages and potential drawbacks.

Guided Tours

Guided tours are a popular choice for many visitors due to several reasons:

• Expert Knowledge: Guides are usually well-versed in the history and significance of Göbeklitepe, providing detailed information that might not be easily accessible through self-research.
• Organised Itinerary: Tours follow a structured schedule, ensuring that visitors see all the significant areas without missing key sites.
• Interactive Experience: Visitors can ask questions and engage in discussions, enhancing their understanding.
• Convenience: Booking a tour often includes transportation, entry fees, and other logistics, simplifying the visit.
• Safety and Comfort: Guided tours provide a sense of security, especially for those unfamiliar with the region.

Self-Exploration

Conversely, self-exploration allows for a different form of discovery:

• Flexible Pace: Visitors can explore at their own speed, spending more or less time at points of interest based on personal preference.
• Personal Experience: Exploring independently allows for a more intimate and personal connection with the site.
• Cost-Effective: Self-exploration can be more economical as it eliminates the costs associated with guided tours.
• Customisation: Visitors have the freedom to tailor their visit, focusing on areas that interest them the most without adhering to a fixed schedule.

Considerations

Both options have their merits and should be carefully considered based on individual preferences and needs:

• Time Constraints: Those with limited time may benefit from the efficiency of a guided tour.
• Interest in Details: History enthusiasts who seek in-depth information might appreciate the expertise of a tour guide.
• Comfort with Navigation: Confident travellers may prefer the independence and flexibility of self-exploration.
• Budget: Budget-conscious visitors might opt for self-exploration to save on tour costs.

Choosing between guided tours and self-exploration ultimately depends on what type of experience appeals more to a visitor. Both methods can offer rewarding and informative visits to Göbeklitepe.

Main Attractions in Göbeklitepe: What Not to Miss

Göbeklitepe houses several unparalleled attractions, each offering a window into the ancient world. Visitors should ensure they experience these significant highlights:

Monumental Pillars

• Pillar 1: The largest and considered the most important pillar, displaying intricate animal carvings and humanoid figures.
• Pillar 31: Known for its unique reliefs, including depictions of wild boars, cranes, and serpents.

Enclosures

• Enclosure D: The best-preserved and most impressive, featuring massive T-shaped pillars.
• Enclosure C: Distinguished by carvings that include a menacing fox.

Central Plaza

• Offering panoramic views, the Central Plaza provides an ideal vantage point to observe the entire archaeological site and its layout.

Stone Rings

• Kamennaya Gora I Ring: Highlights the complex stone arrangements and astronomical alignments.
• Southeast Ring: Includes reliefs of animals—particularly serpents and foxes—demonstrating sophisticated early artistry.

Visitor Centre

• Features educational displays and augmented reality experiences, allowing guests to immerse themselves in the site’s history.

Audio Tours

• Available in multiple languages, audio tours guide visitors through the site’s extensive history and significance.

Archaeological Museum

• Houses artifacts unearthed at Göbeklitepe, providing a deeper understanding of the site’s history and significance.

Guided Tours

• Expert-led tours offer detailed explanations of Göbeklitepe’s archaeological, historical, and cultural contexts.

Key Carvings

• Featuring various carvings including leopards, lions, and other symbolic animals, these are pivotal for understanding the site’s iconography.

Panoramic Viewpoints

• Designated areas around Göbeklitepe provide breathtaking views, especially at sunrise and sunset, highlighting the site’s elevated positioning and surrounding landscapes.

Surrounding Landscape

• The scenic surroundings of Göbeklitepe, including natural fauna and flora, add to the site’s serene and inspirational ambiance.

Visitors to Göbeklitepe should ensure they explore these key attractions, offering an unparalleled glimpse into one of humanity’s most enigmatic archaeological sites.

Nearby Historical Sites and Attractions

Exploring Göbeklitepe opens a gateway to many nearby historical sites and attractions worth visiting. These locations offer deep insights into the rich cultural and historical tapestry of the region, making a trip to this area even more rewarding.

Historical Sites

1. Şanlıurfa Archaeology and Mosaic Museum

   • Located in the city of Şanlıurfa, this museum houses a remarkable collection of artefacts from various periods, including Neolithic, Roman, and Byzantine eras.
   • Highlights include the famous “Urfa Man” statue and stunning mosaic floors from the ancient city of Edessa.

2. Balıklıgöl (Pool of Sacred Fish)

   • A site steeped in religious significance, believed to be where the Prophet Abraham was thrown into a fire by King Nimrod.
   • Features carp ponds that are considered sacred, and visitors often feed the fish while exploring the beautiful gardens.

3. Harran

   • An ancient city known for its unique beehive-shaped houses and believed to have been inhabited since the Bronze Age.
   • Mentioned in the Bible, Harran is an archaeological site with ruins of the University of Harran, one of the oldest in the world.

Cultural Attractions

1. Şanlıurfa Bazaar

   • A bustling market where visitors can experience local culture, purchase traditional handicrafts like carpets and jewellery, and taste local spices and sweets.

2. Göbeklitepe Visitors Centre

   • Provides detailed exhibitions about the site’s discovery, with interactive displays and information about the excavation process.

3. Halfeti

   • Known as the “hidden paradise” due to its partially submerged town, following the construction of the Birecik Dam.
   • Offers boat tours of the flooded village, giving visitors a unique perspective of the area’s transformation over time.

Other Notable Attractions

1. Mount Nemrut

   • A UNESCO World Heritage site famous for its colossal statues and the tomb sanctuary of King Antiochus I of Commagene, offering panoramic views and a glimpse into ancient practices of worship.

2. Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum

   • Home to some of the world’s most beautifully preserved mosaics from the Roman period and celebrated for its extensive collection and sophisticated presentation.

These additional historical sites and attractions provide a fuller understanding of the depth of history and culture in the region surrounding Göbeklitepe. Visitors are encouraged to explore these landmarks to gain a broader appreciation of this historically rich area.

Accommodation and Dining Options around Göbeklitepe

Visitors exploring Göbeklitepe will find a variety of accommodation and dining options tailored to different preferences and budgets.

Accommodation Options

1. Local Hotels:

   • Hilton Garden Inn Şanlıurfa: Known for its comfortable amenities and proximity to Göbeklitepe.
   • Hotel El-Ruha: Offers a blend of modern comforts and traditional Turkish hospitality.
   • Nevali Hotel: Features spacious rooms, a spa, and panoramic views of Şanlıurfa.

2. Boutique Hotels:

   • Narli Ev Butik Otel: Provides a unique stay experience with charming decor and personalised service.
   • Edessa City Hotel: Combines historical ambience with modern facilities.

3. Guesthouses and Inns:

   • Aslan Guest House: A cost-effective option with a homely atmosphere.
   • Ekinci Otel: Offers a quaint stay experience with friendly services.

4. Holiday Rentals:

   • Airbnb Options: Variety of homes and apartments available for a more personalised stay experience.
   • Local Rental Agencies: Offering apartments and villas for short-term stays.

Dining Options

1. Local Cuisine:

   • Ciğerci Aziz Usta: Famous for its delicious liver kebabs.
   • Halil Usta Restaurant: Known for its authentic Turkish dishes.

2. Casual Dining:

   • Baklavaci Çelebi: Renowned for its mouth-watering baklava and desserts.
   • Harran Sofrası: Offers both local and international dishes in a casual setting.

3. Fine Dining:

   • Gülizar Konukevi: Provides a fine dining experience with traditional Turkish cuisine.
   • Kasrı Vezir: Elegant ambience and a gourmet menu featuring local flavours.

4. Cafés and Teahouses:

   • Şair Nafi Café: For a relaxed atmosphere and a good selection of teas and coffees.
   • Çermik Kahvesi: A popular spot to enjoy traditional Turkish coffee.

5. Markets and Street Food:

   • Balıklıgöl Bazaar: Offers a variety of food stalls featuring traditional snacks.
   • Local Street Vendors: Great for a quick bite and sampling local delicacies.

Overall, whether staying in a luxury hotel or a quaint guesthouse, and whether dining at a gourmet restaurant or a local teahouse, visitors to Göbeklitepe will find plenty of options to suit their preferences.

Cultural and Archaeological Insights

Göbeklitepe, a gem of the ancient world, holds boundless cultural and archaeological significance. Situated in Southeastern Turkey, this archaeological site predates Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids by several millennia, revolutionising understanding of early human history.

Archaeological Significance

1. Oldest Known Temple: Dated back to the 10th millennium BCE, Göbeklitepe contains massive T-shaped pillars organised in circular structures, believed to be temples.
2. Construction Techniques: Despite their primitive tools, the builders demonstrated advanced engineering skills. Each stone pillar, weighing up to 20 tonnes, was meticulously carved and strategically positioned.
3. Artwork and Symbolism: The pillars are adorned with intricate carvings of animals and abstract symbols, suggesting ritual significance and early artistic expression. Common motifs include foxes, snakes, and birds, reflecting the fauna of that era.

Cultural Implications

1. Sedentary Civilisation: Göbeklitepe challenges the traditional narrative of hunter-gatherers transitioning to agriculture. It indicates that religious beliefs may have led to the formation of permanent settlements, preceding agricultural practices.
2. Social Hierarchy: The complexity and scale of the site imply an organised society with specialised roles, suggesting the existence of social stratification and labour division.
3. Ritual Practices: The design and layout hint at complex ritualistic practices, providing insight into the spiritual life of early human societies. It’s believed that the site’s primary purpose was ceremonial rather than domestic.

Broader Archaeological Impact

1. New Research Avenues: Göbeklitepe has prompted archaeologists to revisit existing theories about the Neolithic Revolution and its correlation with religious and social developments.
2. Comparative Analysis: The site provides a benchmark for comparing other contemporary ancient structures globally, enriching the understanding of early human ingenuity.

Influence on Modern Culture

1. Tourism and Education: Göbeklitepe has become a focal point for researchers and tourists alike, significantly contributing to educational tourism in Turkey.
2. Cultural Preservation: Efforts to preserve and study Göbeklitepe reflect a broader commitment to protecting world heritage and understanding human history’s origins.

Incorporating these elements highlights Göbeklitepe’s profound contributions to archaeology and the study of early humans.

Preservation Efforts and Future Research

Preservation efforts at Göbeklitepe have been multifaceted, focusing on both immediate protection and long-term conservation. Key initiatives include:

• Sheltering Structures: Protective roofing and shelters have been constructed to shield the delicate stone carvings and structures from weather elements.
• Access Control: Strict access control measures limit the number of visitors and manage foot traffic to minimise wear and tear on the site.
• Monitoring Systems: Advanced monitoring systems track environmental conditions, such as humidity and temperature, to promptly address any potential threats to the structural integrity.

In addition to these physical measures, several projects have been launched to ensure the long-term preservation of Göbeklitepe:

1. Local Involvement Programmes: Engaging the local community in conservation efforts through education and employment opportunities, fostering a sense of ownership and responsibility.
2. Collaborative Efforts: Collaboration with international archaeological institutions and governmental bodies to employ best practices in site preservation.
3. Educational Outreach: Offering educational programmes and workshops to raise awareness about the site’s significance and the importance of its preservation.

Future research at Göbeklitepe is driven by the need to uncover further insights into the prehistoric era. Several avenues of investigation are being pursued:

• Archaeoastronomy Studies: Research into how Göbeklitepe might have been used for astronomical observations, possibly serving as an ancient observatory.
• Technological Analysis: Utilising advanced technologies such as ground-penetrating radar and 3D modelling to explore undiscovered areas and refine understanding of the site’s layout.
• Comparative Studies: Comparing findings from Göbeklitepe with other contemporary archaeological sites to build a broader picture of early human civilisation.

Continued excavations are expected to reveal more about the social, cultural, and spiritual functions of Göbeklitepe. Researchers remain committed to uncovering how the site fits into broader narratives of human history.

• Interdisciplinary Research: Bringing together experts from various fields such as anthropology, geology, and climate science to enrich the understanding of the site’s history.
• Ethnoarchaeological Approaches: Investigating contemporary and historical communities to draw parallels and enhance interpretations of the site’s usage.
• Material Analysis: Detailed analysis of tools, pigments, and other materials found onsite to glean information about the technology and resources available to its builders.

Preservation and research at Göbeklitepe are vital for comprehending humanity’s early history and ensuring this invaluable heritage endures for future generations.

Conclusion: Reflection on the Importance of Göbeklitepe

The historical significance of Göbeklitepe cannot be overstated, as its discovery has profoundly impacted our understanding of early human civilisation. As the oldest known temple complex, Göbeklitepe offers invaluable insights into the lives and beliefs of humans during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period, challenging previously held notions about the development of religious practices and societal structures.

Significance in Archaeology

1. Age and Uniqueness: Göbeklitepe, dating back to approximately 9600 BCE, is unparalleled in its age and sophistication. Its existence predates Stonehenge and the Great Pyramids by several millennia.
2. Construction Mastery: The advanced architectural skills demonstrated by the construction of large T-shaped pillars indicate that early humans had the capability for complex planning and execution.
3. Tool Use and Craftsmanship: The intricate carvings and symbols found on the pillars show an early mastery of tools and artistic expression, shedding light on cognitive development and cultural practices.

Implications for Understanding Early Societies

• Religious Practices: The presence of these elaborate structures suggests that the impetus for early humans to settle and build communities may have been driven by religious or ritualistic motivations more than by agriculture or economic needs.
• Social Organisation: The organisation required to construct Göbeklitepe implies the existence of a cooperative society with a division of labour, a previously underestimated element of such early communities.
• Diet and Subsistence: The evidence of communal feasting gleaned from animal bones found at the site suggests that large-scale gathering and sharing of food were integral to the Göbeklitepe society.

Broader Cultural Repercussions

• Challenging Historical Narratives: Göbeklitepe encourages a reevaluation of human history, providing new perspectives on the origin of complex societies, often pushing back the timeline of human advancement and societal complexity.
• Global Interest: The site has attracted attention worldwide, fostering international cooperation in archaeological research and promoting cultural tourism. This not only has economic benefits but also enhances global heritage appreciation.

In light of these points, Göbeklitepe stands as an essential archaeological site, offering profound insights into the dawn of civilisation and continually inspiring research and discovery in the quest to understand humankind’s ancient past.

Trajan nymphaeum in the ancient city of Laodikeia (fountain of trajan)

    The Nymphaeum of Trajan was unearthed at the southern end of the West Portico of the Stadium Street, bordering the street and the portico connected to it at the southern end. The monumental fountain has a single-storeyed façade with a large square in front of the façade. The fountain, which has a rectangular plan on the exterior, has a façade animated by an apsidal pool and a colonnaded gallery on the interior, which was widely built in the Roman Empire at the end of the 1st century AD. In the monumental Nymphaeum structure, the power of both the Roman Empire and Laodikeia was exhibited to the public as political propaganda with four granite and eight marble columns and pedimented facades on both sides in front. The water law unearthed on the eastern wing of the façade facing the square provides important information about the use of water in the city, its cleanliness, the protection of the line, its distribution, the nature of the officials supervising it, and the penalties and prohibitions to be imposed on those who violate the rules, as well as showing that the monumental fountain was built in 113-114 AD during the reign of Emperor Trajan (98-117 AD). The group sculpture of Emperor Traian and the Daker (Dacia) captive in the pediment carried by two columns, which are higher than the others and arranged in the form of a temple pediment on the main façade of the fountain, reveals the importance of the structure. On the other hand, water was provided from the north side of the fountain, an arched pool at the southern end of the Stadium Street West Portico, and water was provided on three sides, one of which was rectangular in plan, on the east and west sides. The main pool provided water to the part facing the square in the south front.

It is understood from the crosses engraved on the parapets that the monumental fountain structure was used for a while more in the 4th century AD due to the liberalization of Christianity (313 AD). Due to the importance of the square and the construction of an administrative building to the south and official offices on both sides of the square in the 5th century AD, the apsidal pool was converted into an exedra for seating. During this phase, the rectangular pool on the east side was enlarged, two small pools were built on the southwest side, and a small water terminal was created in the north by installing a system of funnels supplying water in different directions. In this use, the sculpture group consisting of Emperor Trajan and the captive was continued to be exhibited in the exedra since it was likened to Constantine the Great who freed Christianity. The exedra completely lost its function as a result of the collapse of the columned gallery on the rear façade into the building with the earthquake in 494 AD.

REFERENCE: https://twitter.com/celal1964

                           https://laodikeia.pau.edu.tr/yapilar-696

Human-Sized Sculptures Found in Göbeklitepe and Karahan Tepe

 A life-size statue of a wild boar and a human was found during the excavations at Göbeklitepe and Karahantepe in Şanlıurfa. In Karahantepe, one of the realistic human statues of the period was brought to light. The statue, one of the examples of prehistoric art with a realistic facial expression, is 2.3 meters high.

According to a statement released by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey, various human and animal sculptures were unearthed during excavations at 9 archaeological sites in 2023 as part of the Stone Hills project.

During the excavations, a life-size statue of a wild boar made of limestone was found in the D structure of Göbeklitepe. The pig statue, which has red, white and black pigment residues on its surface, is the first painted statue from that period to date.

The boar statue discovered in Göbeklitepe was unearthed on a bench with decorations that are estimated to be an 'H' shaped symbol, a crescent moon, two snakes and three human faces or masks.

TAŞ TEPELER(Stone Hill)

Göbekli Tepe and 11 surrounding archaeological sites are home to Anatolia's and Upper Mesopotamia's oldest settled communities. Spread over 200 kilometers, the 'taş tepeler' are expected to illuminate a little-known period in human history. The monumental structures in the 'taş tepeler' are believed to be communal spaces where people came together.

The Stone Hills show that there are other sites that are contemporary with Göbekli Tepe and have similar characteristics. All of these sites were located on high hills in areas ideal for hunting. The hunting grounds in the vicinity of these sites also support this view.

Göbekli Tepe dates back to 9600 BC and reflects an uninterrupted period of about 1500 years. This process, which we recognize with Göbekli Tepe, actually covers a wide geography and maintains its dynamism for a long time.

KIBYRA

 

Kibyra ancient city was founded on low hills, heights of which differ from 950 m and 1350 m,  to the West of Burdur, in Gölhisar. The city was at the junction of Lycian, Karian and Phrygian cultural areas and in the center of a trade route connecting the North to the South and the East to the West in early periods. The area was called as ‘Kabalia’ in early periods and ‘Kibyratis’ during Hellenistic and Roman periods. Although the meaning of the word is not known exactly, Kibyra is not a Hellenistic name. Common view is that it belonged to a language used by Luvians, people who lived in western and southwestern Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age, and this unknown name was changed as Kibyra in Hellen. According to Strabo, a traveller from Anatolia, Kibyrians were of Lydian origin and they moved to Kabalis from there. It is also obvious that there were also migrations from Pisidia, Milyas and Solym to the area and all these people joined and established Kibyra, the width of which reached to 100 stadia. Strabo also emphasized that four different languages, Lydian, Solymi, Psidian, Hellenic, were spoken in the city. Strabo’s description about the foundation of the city has been supported by the archaeological finds from Uylupınar, a settlement approximately 18 km away from Kibyra. The settlement around Uylupınar village of Gölhisar and the rocky area around Gölhisar Lake has finds dating back to the Early Iron Age. This settlement is most probably the area where Kibyrians had settled long before they moved to the city, which can be seen today, in other words ‘Old Kibyra’. Old architectural ruins of the city today are from the Roman Imperial Period and Late Antiguity.

Kibyra was an autonomous city which could coin its own money during the Hellenistic Period.  It is known that the quadruple council  (Kabalis Tetrapolis / Association of Four Cities in Kabalis Region) which was established in the second century BC under the leadership of Kibyra and consisted of Bubon, Balboura and Oinoanda, cities located nearby, played an important role in the political history of the area. It seems that the council was a decision making mechanism based on voting of city representatives.  In this political association, Kibyra had two votes, whereas the other cities had one vote each. According to Strabo, Kibyra had two votes for providing 30.0000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. Records show that the council was eliminated by Roman commander Murena in 82 BC. After this period, Kibyra was incorporated into Asia Minor and the other cities were incorporated into the Lycian League. During the Roman Period, it became the judicial centre of Asia Minor’s state governor.

The city, destroyed by an earthquake in 23 AD, was exempted from tax for five years and it was donated money by Roman Emperor Tiberius. Thus, the city was rebuilt and Kbyrians showed their gratitude by naming their city as ‘Caesera Kibyra’. After the second devastating eartquake in 417 AD, the city lost its architectural plan and continued its existence getting smaller and losing its glory during Late Antiguity.

Kibyra main city is on three hills seperated from each other by deep cliffs. It is seen that public, civil and religious buildings were organized symmetrically to form completeness. All the buildings were placed on the terraced hill so as not to spoil each other’s lake and valley view.

Necropolis, consisting of many different architectural styles, surrounds the hill where public buildings are seen densely. These buildings are dense between the Stadion in the East and the West ridge of the hill where the Theatre and the Odeon are. On the same axis, main street, secondary routes, basilica with administrative and judicial functions, temples, social and commercial market place (Agora), temples and small shops, symbols of economical liveliness of the city, can be seen. According to the records and inscriptions, Kibyra was famous for its ironworking, leather trade and horse breeding. It has also been found out that ceramic fabrication was of great importance in Kibyra.

Excavation and research studies in Kibyra, under the leadership of the Burdur Museum, started in 2006. It has been a continuous excavation by the decision of the Council of Ministers on behalf of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University headed by Associate Professor Şükrü Özdoğru since 2010. Since 2006, Stadion, Odeion (Music House), Agora, Necropolis, Late Antiguity Bath, Caiserion, Roman Imperial Bath and Basilica have been excavated. Stadion, Odeion and Bath excavations have been completed. Work continues in Agora, Main Street, Necropolis, Caisarion, Basilica and the Bath Complex from the Roman Imperial Period.

 

KIBYRA CAISARION (EMPEROR CULT TEMPLE)

 

            Caisarion is located to the Southwest of the main hill. The hill, at this point, goes towards the stream (Kanlı Dere)  in South and West directions by forming steep crests and  creating an area to control everywhere easily. Caiserion was built at this dominant point of the city. The reason why it is called as ‘Caisarion’ is the inscriptions. Inscriptions are reliable proofs to show us that the construction was built for the memory of Emperor Augustus and his wife Livia, by the order of Emperor Cladius (41-54 AD). Thanks to the insriptions, it is also understood that it was built during the reign of Emperor Cladius. Therefore, this construction must have been built as a Caisarion (emperor cult temple). Facade of the North-South directioned construction is on the North. Total area of the construction is 16.00 x 8.90 m. Findings, which can be seen today, give us information about the structure because the whole construction except for the foundation must have been destroyed by the devastating earthquake in 417 AD. Caisarion is originally an Ionic emperor cult temple built in ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­prostylos (four columns on the facade).

KIBYRA THOLOS NYMPHAEUM (ROUND FOUNTAIN)

 

The round fountain structure decorated with columns, embossed friezes and sculptures was unearthed during the 2016 excavations in the city square functioning as a social and cultural gathering area on the level of Terrace III of the Agora.

 The structure consists of a round body with a water system laid in the center, formed with blockwork, and two circular pools, one inside and one outside, surrounding it. The central structure is covered with a conical roof carried by columns. The fountain, which was apparently built for the first time after the earthquake of 23 AD, has three different phases of use: In its first phase of use, it consists of a single pool and a circular body with a central water system, and a second pool was probably added in the late second and early third centuries AD. Although it is understood that the roof of the fountain collapsed and was extensively damaged in the 417 AD earthquake; archaeological data show that the structure was used with the same function in the Late Eastern Roman Period, probably until the end of the VII century AD, after some renovations. The excavations revealed that the building was not only a fountain (nymphaion), but also a castellum that provided water distribution to its immediate surroundings; and a visual water monument decorated with sculptures, columns and architrave-friezes with girlanded architraves carrying the conical roof. Due to its location, it was placed in the busiest square of the city, visible to those coming to the Agora from the direction of the Theater and Odeion, as well as from the direction of the Stadion.

The diameter of the structure, together with the stone drainage troughs surrounding the outer round pool, is 14.91 meters in total, and its estimated height should have been approximately 8 meters with the conical roof covering only the central body through which the water system passes. In its current state after the restoration was completed, it is 6.76 meters high. The thick-walled main funnels supplying water to the fountain, which only had a central cylindrical body and a single pool in Phase I, were made of terracotta. The water from the ancient spring in the Böğrüdelik plateau was poured into the first pool through six marble statues between the supporting columns in the central platform. Only two of these statues were recovered during the excavations, depicting Heracles reclining on a lion's pelt and Dionysus the Younger reclining on a panther's pelt. According to the traces on the outer pool, there should have originally been twelve bronze statues on the outer pool. Unfortunately, no trace of them was found.

The restoration project prepared for the Nymphaeum, which was approved by the decision of the Antalya Regional Board for the Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage dated 30.07.2021 and numbered 12576, was carried out by the Kibyra Excavation Team between August and October 2022. The restored structure was raised to its feet and water from the ancient spring was poured, thus restoring it to its original function two thousand years after its first construction.

KIBYRA BASILICAL PLANNED CHURCH

    The Basilical Planned Church, located just above the Kibyra Stadion, is the largest religious building of the Eastern Roman period city, measuring 20.00 x 48.00 m from exterior to exterior. This church has a basilica plan with three naves and a triconchos (clover-shaped) apse. The central apse has an altar and synthronon, while the pastophorion rooms are located behind the side apses. The three rooms to the south of the basilica and the rooms next to it are burial chambers. In the first room in the east, an altar and a relicer were found inside the altar. In the other rooms, burials were made in terracotta sarcophagi under the floor. In front of the basilica is a landing added later. From here, the narthex (the covered front space at the entrance of the church) is entered through four doors, two at the front and one on each side. The floor is paved with opus sipicatum (rectangular pieces of terracotta/tile arranged side by side to form the spica (spike) motif that gives the floor its name) decorated with different geometric ornaments. Entered through three doors from the narthex is the naos section (the place where the congregation gathers in basilicas consisting of the central and side naves). The naos is divided into three naves by colonnades (spaces within the naos, placed perpendicular to the apse, separated from each other by columns or pillars). During the excavations, it was observed that the floor of the central nave was paved with marble slabs reclaimed from Roman Imperial Period buildings. The floor of the side naves, which are separated by colonnades from Roman Imperial buildings, is paved with opus spicatum. At the eastern end of the naos is the bema (a raised space with an altar separated from the naos by parapets and accessible only to priests). The bema is surrounded by a buttressed tempo (a parapeted section separating the naos from the altar room). In the center of this area, traces of the etching of the metal doors on the stone are still visible. A four-legged altar table was excavated in the center of the area. In the central apse, there is a stepped Synthronon (stone or wooden seating benches placed inside the apse). To the north and south of the main apse, two rooms were exposed. These rooms are called "pastophorion". The room to the north, where bread and wine were prepared, is the "prothesis" room. The room to the south, where liturgical objects or vestments were kept, is called "diakonikon". To the south of the basilica are the burial chambers, which seem to have been planned together with the building. In the first room, which is accessed through the diaconicon room and paved with marble, an altar is observed to the east of the row of three opposite columns. During the excavations, a silver relicer (objects in different forms made for placing relics belonging to holy people) was found inside this altar. This room and the rooms to its west were used as burial areas. Fifty-five terracotta sarcophagi placed under the floors of the rooms were found during the excavations. Architectural fragments, ceramic vessels, lamps, coins and medallions were found inside the basilical planned church with triconchos apse. The dating of the building is based on its plan with triconchos apse, which is not very common in Anatolia, and it is thought that it was built in the 5th-6th century AD after the 417 AD earthquake, which was the second largest earthquake that the city suffered according to ancient sources.